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Idei H, Yamashita Y. Elucidating multifinal and equifinal pathways to developmental disorders by constructing real-world neurorobotic models. Neural Netw 2024; 169:57-74. [PMID: 37857173 DOI: 10.1016/j.neunet.2023.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Vigorous research has been conducted to accumulate biological and theoretical knowledge about neurodevelopmental disorders, including molecular, neural, computational, and behavioral characteristics; however, these findings remain fragmentary and do not elucidate integrated mechanisms. An obstacle is the heterogeneity of developmental pathways causing clinical phenotypes. Additionally, in symptom formations, the primary causes and consequences of developmental learning processes are often indistinguishable. Herein, we review developmental neurorobotic experiments tackling problems related to the dynamic and complex properties of neurodevelopmental disorders. Specifically, we focus on neurorobotic models under predictive processing lens for the study of developmental disorders. By constructing neurorobotic models with predictive processing mechanisms of learning, perception, and action, we can simulate formations of integrated causal relationships among neurodynamical, computational, and behavioral characteristics in the robot agents while considering developmental learning processes. This framework has the potential to bind neurobiological hypotheses (excitation-inhibition imbalance and functional disconnection), computational accounts (unusual encoding of uncertainty), and clinical symptoms. Developmental neurorobotic approaches may serve as a complementary research framework for integrating fragmented knowledge and overcoming the heterogeneity of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayato Idei
- Department of Information Medicine, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
| | - Yuichi Yamashita
- Department of Information Medicine, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.
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2
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Meijer M, Franke B, Sandi C, Klein M. Epigenome-wide DNA methylation in externalizing behaviours: A review and combined analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 145:104997. [PMID: 36566803 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
DNA methylation (DNAm) is one of the most frequently studied epigenetic mechanisms facilitating the interplay of genomic and environmental factors, which can contribute to externalizing behaviours and related psychiatric disorders. Previous epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) for externalizing behaviours have been limited in sample size, and, therefore, candidate genes and biomarkers with robust evidence are still lacking. We 1) performed a systematic literature review of EWAS of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)- and aggression-related behaviours conducted in peripheral tissue and cord blood and 2) combined the most strongly associated DNAm sites observed in individual studies (p < 10-3) to identify candidate genes and biological systems for ADHD and aggressive behaviours. We observed enrichment for neuronal processes and neuronal cell marker genes for ADHD. Astrocyte and granulocytes cell markers among genes annotated to DNAm sites were relevant for both ADHD and aggression-related behaviours. Only 1 % of the most significant epigenetic findings for ADHD/ADHD symptoms were likely to be directly explained by genetic factors involved in ADHD. Finally, we discuss how the field would greatly benefit from larger sample sizes and harmonization of assessment instruments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy Meijer
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Laboratory of Behavioural Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Franke
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Laboratory of Behavioural Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marieke Klein
- Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, University of California, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA.
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3
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Brandes N, Weissbrod O, Linial M. Open problems in human trait genetics. Genome Biol 2022; 23:131. [PMID: 35725481 PMCID: PMC9208223 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-022-02697-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic studies of human traits have revolutionized our understanding of the variation between individuals, and yet, the genetics of most traits is still poorly understood. In this review, we highlight the major open problems that need to be solved, and by discussing these challenges provide a primer to the field. We cover general issues such as population structure, epistasis and gene-environment interactions, data-related issues such as ancestry diversity and rare genetic variants, and specific challenges related to heritability estimates, genetic association studies, and polygenic risk scores. We emphasize the interconnectedness of these problems and suggest promising avenues to address them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadav Brandes
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Omer Weissbrod
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michal Linial
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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4
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Komada M, Nishimura Y. Epigenetics and Neuroinflammation Associated With Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Microglial Perspective. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:852752. [PMID: 35646933 PMCID: PMC9133693 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.852752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a cause of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders, fetal alcohol syndrome, and cerebral palsy. Converging lines of evidence from basic and clinical sciences suggest that dysregulation of the epigenetic landscape, including DNA methylation and miRNA expression, is associated with neuroinflammation. Genetic and environmental factors can affect the interaction between epigenetics and neuroinflammation, which may cause neurodevelopmental disorders. In this minireview, we focus on neuroinflammation that might be mediated by epigenetic dysregulation in microglia, and compare studies using mammals and zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munekazu Komada
- Mammalian Embryology, Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuhei Nishimura
- Department of Integrative Pharmacology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
- *Correspondence: Yuhei Nishimura,
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Restrepo-Lozano JM, Pokhvisneva I, Wang Z, Patel S, Meaney MJ, Silveira PP, Flores C. Corticolimbic DCC gene co-expression networks as predictors of impulsivity in children. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:2742-2750. [PMID: 35388180 PMCID: PMC9156406 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01533-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitory control deficits are prevalent in multiple neuropsychiatric conditions. The communication- as well as the connectivity- between corticolimbic regions of the brain are fundamental for eliciting inhibitory control behaviors, but early markers of vulnerability to this behavioral trait are yet to be discovered. The gradual maturation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), in particular of the mesocortical dopamine innervation, mirrors the protracted development of inhibitory control; both are present early in life, but reach full maturation by early adulthood. Evidence suggests the involvement of the Netrin-1/DCC signaling pathway and its associated gene networks in corticolimbic development. Here we investigated whether an expression-based polygenic score (ePRS) based on corticolimbic-specific DCC gene co-expression networks associates with impulsivity-related phenotypes in community samples of children. We found that lower ePRS scores associate with higher measurements of impulsive choice in 6-year-old children tested in the Information Sampling Task and with impulsive action in 6- and 10-year-old children tested in the Stop Signal Task. We also found the ePRS to be a better overall predictor of impulsivity when compared to a conventional PRS score comparable in size to the ePRS (4515 SNPs in our discovery cohort) and derived from the latest GWAS for ADHD. We propose that the corticolimbic DCC-ePRS can serve as a novel type of marker for impulsivity-related phenotypes in children. By adopting a systems biology approach based on gene co-expression networks and genotype-gene expression (rather than genotype-disease) associations, these results further validate our methodology to construct polygenic scores linked to the overall biological function of tissue-specific gene networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose M. Restrepo-Lozano
- grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.412078.80000 0001 2353 5268Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Irina Pokhvisneva
- grid.412078.80000 0001 2353 5268Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics & Mental Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Zihan Wang
- grid.412078.80000 0001 2353 5268Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics & Mental Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Sachin Patel
- grid.412078.80000 0001 2353 5268Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics & Mental Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Michael J. Meaney
- grid.412078.80000 0001 2353 5268Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics & Mental Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.452264.30000 0004 0530 269XSingapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Patricia P. Silveira
- grid.412078.80000 0001 2353 5268Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics & Mental Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC Canada
| | - Cecilia Flores
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada. .,Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada. .,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Abstract
Drug addiction is responsible for millions of deaths per year around the world. Still, its management as a chronic disease is shadowed by misconceptions from the general public. Indeed, drug consumers are often labelled as "weak", "immoral" or "depraved". Consequently, drug addiction is often perceived as an individual problem and not societal. In technical terms, drug addiction is defined as a chronic, relapsing disease resulting from sustained effects of drugs on the brain. Through a better characterisation of the cerebral circuits involved, and the long-term modifications of the brain induced by addictive drugs administrations, first, we might be able to change the way the general public see the patient who is suffering from drug addiction, and second, we might be able to find new treatments to normalise the altered brain homeostasis. In this review, we synthetise the contribution of fundamental research to the understanding drug addiction and its contribution to potential novel therapeutics. Mostly based on drug-induced modifications of synaptic plasticity and epigenetic mechanisms (and their behavioural correlates) and after demonstration of their reversibility, we tried to highlight promising therapeutics. We also underline the specific temporal dynamics and psychosocial aspects of this complex psychiatric disease adding parameters to be considered in clinical trials and paving the way to test new therapeutic venues.
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Jia P, Manuel AM, Fernandes BS, Dai Y, Zhao Z. Distinct effect of prenatal and postnatal brain expression across 20 brain disorders and anthropometric social traits: a systematic study of spatiotemporal modularity. Brief Bioinform 2021; 22:6291943. [PMID: 34086851 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbab214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Different spatiotemporal abnormalities have been implicated in different neuropsychiatric disorders and anthropometric social traits, yet an investigation in the temporal network modularity with brain tissue transcriptomics has been lacking. We developed a supervised network approach to investigate the genome-wide association study (GWAS) results in the spatial and temporal contexts and demonstrated it in 20 brain disorders and anthropometric social traits. BrainSpan transcriptome profiles were used to discover significant modules enriched with trait susceptibility genes in a developmental stage-stratified manner. We investigated whether, and in which developmental stages, GWAS-implicated genes are coordinately expressed in brain transcriptome. We identified significant network modules for each disorder and trait at different developmental stages, providing a systematic view of network modularity at specific developmental stages for a myriad of brain disorders and traits. Specifically, we observed a strong pattern of the fetal origin for most psychiatric disorders and traits [such as schizophrenia (SCZ), bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and neuroticism], whereas increased co-expression activities of genes were more strongly associated with neurological diseases [such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis] and anthropometric traits (such as college completion, education and subjective well-being) in postnatal brains. Further analyses revealed enriched cell types and functional features that were supported and corroborated prior knowledge in specific brain disorders, such as clathrin-mediated endocytosis in AD, myelin sheath in multiple sclerosis and regulation of synaptic plasticity in both college completion and education. Our study provides a landscape view of the spatiotemporal features in a myriad of brain-related disorders and traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peilin Jia
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St. Suite 600, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Astrid M Manuel
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St. Suite 600, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Brisa S Fernandes
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St. Suite 600, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yulin Dai
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St. Suite 600, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zhongming Zhao
- Center for Precision Health, School of Biomedical Informatics, the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin St. Suite 600, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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8
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Jequier Gygax M, Maillard AM, Favre J. Could Gait Biomechanics Become a Marker of Atypical Neuronal Circuitry in Human Development?-The Example of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:624522. [PMID: 33796508 PMCID: PMC8009281 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.624522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This perspective paper presents converging recent knowledge in neurosciences (motor neurophysiology, neuroimaging and neuro cognition) and biomechanics to outline the relationships between maturing neuronal network, behavior, and gait in human development. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) represents a particularly relevant neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) to study these convergences, as an early life condition presenting with sensorimotor and social behavioral alterations. ASD diagnosis relies solely on behavioral criteria. The absence of biological marker in ASD is a main challenge, and hampers correlations between behavioral development and standardized data such as brain structure alterations, brain connectivity, or genetic profile. Gait, as a way to study motor system development, represents a well-studied, early life ability that can be characterized through standardized biomechanical analysis. Therefore, developmental gait biomechanics might appear as a possible motor phenotype and biomarker, solid enough to be correlated to neuronal network maturation, in normal and atypical developmental trajectories—like in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Jequier Gygax
- Service des Troubles du Spectre de l'Autisme, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anne M Maillard
- Service des Troubles du Spectre de l'Autisme, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Julien Favre
- Swiss BioMotion Lab, Department of Musculoskeletal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne (CHUV-UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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9
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Gandal MJ, Geschwind DH. Polygenicity in Psychiatry-Like It or Not, We Have to Understand It. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 89:2-4. [PMID: 33272361 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Gandal
- Department of Psychiatry, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Department of Psychiatry, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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Suliman-Lavie R, Title B, Cohen Y, Hamada N, Tal M, Tal N, Monderer-Rothkoff G, Gudmundsdottir B, Gudmundsson KO, Keller JR, Huang GJ, Nagata KI, Yarom Y, Shifman S. Pogz deficiency leads to transcription dysregulation and impaired cerebellar activity underlying autism-like behavior in mice. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5836. [PMID: 33203851 PMCID: PMC7673123 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19577-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Several genes implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are chromatin regulators, including POGZ. The cellular and molecular mechanisms leading to ASD impaired social and cognitive behavior are unclear. Animal models are crucial for studying the effects of mutations on brain function and behavior as well as unveiling the underlying mechanisms. Here, we generate a brain specific conditional knockout mouse model deficient for Pogz, an ASD risk gene. We demonstrate that Pogz deficient mice show microcephaly, growth impairment, increased sociability, learning and motor deficits, mimicking several of the human symptoms. At the molecular level, luciferase reporter assay indicates that POGZ is a negative regulator of transcription. In accordance, in Pogz deficient mice we find a significant upregulation of gene expression, most notably in the cerebellum. Gene set enrichment analysis revealed that the transcriptional changes encompass genes and pathways disrupted in ASD, including neurogenesis and synaptic processes, underlying the observed behavioral phenotype in mice. Physiologically, Pogz deficiency is associated with a reduction in the firing frequency of simple and complex spikes and an increase in amplitude of the inhibitory synaptic input in cerebellar Purkinje cells. Our findings support a mechanism linking heterochromatin dysregulation to cerebellar circuit dysfunction and behavioral abnormalities in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reut Suliman-Lavie
- Department of Genetics, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ben Title
- Department of Neurobiology, The Institute of Life Sciences and Edmond & Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences (ELSC), The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yahel Cohen
- Department of Genetics, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nanako Hamada
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute for Developmental Research, Aichi Developmental Disability Center, Kasugai, Japan
| | - Maayan Tal
- Department of Genetics, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nitzan Tal
- Department of Genetics, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Galya Monderer-Rothkoff
- Department of Genetics, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Bjorg Gudmundsdottir
- Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics Branch, National Heart Lung and Blood Institutes (NHLBI)/National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kristbjorn O Gudmundsson
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Bldg. 560/12-70, 1050 Boyles Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
- Basic Research Program, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Bldg. 560/32-31D, 1050 Boyles Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Jonathan R Keller
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Bldg. 560/12-70, 1050 Boyles Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
- Basic Research Program, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Bldg. 560/32-31D, 1050 Boyles Street, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Guo-Jen Huang
- Department and Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Koh-Ichi Nagata
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute for Developmental Research, Aichi Developmental Disability Center, Kasugai, Japan
- Department of Neurochemistry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yosef Yarom
- Department of Neurobiology, The Institute of Life Sciences and Edmond & Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences (ELSC), The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Sagiv Shifman
- Department of Genetics, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
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