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Bouzidi YS, Gendolla GHE. Cognitive conflict does not always mean high effort: Task difficulty's moderating effect on cardiac response. Psychophysiology 2024; 61:e14580. [PMID: 38615338 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
This article presents an experiment (N = 127 university students) testing whether the previously found impact of conflict primes on effort-related cardiac response is moderated by objective task difficulty. Recently, it has been shown that primed cognitive conflict increases cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP) reactivity-an index of effort intensity-during the performance of relatively easy tasks. This effect could be attributed to conflict-related negative affect. Consequently, as it has been shown for other types of negative affect, we expected conflict primes' effect to be task-context dependent and thus to be moderated by objective task difficulty. In a between-persons design, we manipulated conflict via embedded pictures of conflict-related vs. non-conflict-related Stroop items in a memory task. We expected primed conflict to increase effort in a relatively easy version of the task but to lead to disengagement when task difficulty was objectively high. PEP reactivity corroborated our predictions. Rather than always increasing effort, cognitive conflict's effect on resource mobilization was context-dependent and resulted in weak responses in a difficult task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann S Bouzidi
- FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Guido H E Gendolla
- FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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2
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Godfrey DA, Kaufman EA, Crowell SE. Non-suicidal Self-injury History Moderates the Association Between Maternal Emotional Support and Adolescent Affect During Conflict. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2024; 55:415-425. [PMID: 36028639 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-022-01417-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Onset of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is most frequent during adolescence. Etiological models indicate that abnormal affective reactivity and regulation within interpersonal contexts is related to heightened NSSI risk. The current study examined the effects of maternal emotional support on adolescent sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity and observed anger during a conflict discussion among 56 mother-daughter dyads consisting of healthy adolescents and adolescents with a history of self-injury. During the conflict discussion task, maternal emotional support and adolescent anger were coded from behavior, and cardiovascular pre-ejection period was used to index SNS responding. Results demonstrated that maternal emotional support was negatively associated with adolescent anger and SNS activity during the conflict. However, these associations were not significant among adolescents with heightened NSSI history. Maternal emotional support may serve as an interpersonal mechanism for adolescent physiological and behavioral regulation, yet may function differently among adolescents with more frequent NSSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald A Godfrey
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, 4505 Cullen Blvd, Houston, TX, 77204, USA
| | - Erin A Kaufman
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, 361 Windermere Road, London, ON, N6A 3K7, Canada.
| | - Sheila E Crowell
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, 380 S. 1530 E. BEH S. 502, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
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3
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Framorando D, Falk JR, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G, Gendolla GHE. The power of personal control: Task choice attenuates the effect of implicit sadness on sympathetically mediated cardiac response. Psychophysiology 2024; 61:e14495. [PMID: 38071414 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Implicitly processed pictures of facial expressions of emotions have been found to systematically influence sympathetically mediated cardiovascular reactivity during task performance. According to the Implicit-Affect-Primes-Effort model, this happens because different affect primes activate the concepts of performance ease versus performance difficulty. Grounded in a recent action shielding model, our laboratory experiment (N = 129 university students) tested whether engaging in action by personal choice can immunize against those implicit affective influences on effort. Participants worked on an objectively difficult cognitive task, which was either externally assigned or ostensibly personally chosen. As predicted, participants in the assigned task condition showed weaker cardiac pre-ejection period reactivity during task performance, reflecting disengagement, when they were primed with sadness than when they were exposed to anger primes. Most relevant, this affect prime effect disappeared when participants could ostensibly choose their task themselves. These findings replicate previous research on implicit affect's impact on sympathetically mediated cardiac response and extend the literature on action shielding by personal choice effects to implicit affective influences on action execution.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Framorando
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Johanna R Falk
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Guido H E Gendolla
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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4
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Framorando D, Falk JR, Gollwitzer PM, Oettingen G, Gendolla GHE. Can personal task choice shield against fear and anger prime effects on effort? A study on cardiac response. Biol Psychol 2023; 181:108616. [PMID: 37307893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This experiment tested whether personal task choice can shield against implicit affective influences on sympathetically mediated cardiovascular response, reflecting effort. Participants were N = 121 healthy university students who completed a moderately difficult memory task with integrated briefly flashed and masked fear vs. anger primes. Half of the participants believed they could choose between an attention and a memory task, while the other half was automatically assigned to the task. Replicating previous research, we expected an influence of the affect primes on effort when the task was externally assigned. By contrast, when participants were given a task choice, we predicted strong action shielding and thus a weak implicit affect effect on resource mobilization. As expected, participants in the assigned task condition showed stronger cardiac pre-ejection period reactivity when exposed to fear primes than when processing anger primes. Importantly, this affect prime effect disappeared when participants could ostensibly choose the task. These findings add to other recent evidence for action shielding by personal task choice and importantly extend this effect to implicit affective influences on cardiac reactivity during task performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Framorando
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Johanna R Falk
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Guido H E Gendolla
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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5
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Gendolla GHE. Commentary: Engage or disengage? Interpretations from a resource conservation perspective. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-022-09987-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn this commentary, I discuss the eight empirical contributions to the Motivation and Emotion special issue on goal disengagement from a resource conservation perspective. This process was not in the focus of the reported studies, but is central for understanding both engaging and disengaging. I will outline that many of the new findings on disengagement reported in this special issue are highly compatible with the predictions of and research on motivational intensity theory. Examples are the roles of commitment, subjective goal value, affective experiences, autonomy, self-awareness, and action planning. These variables have been found to be central for both engagement and disengagement and their consideration in a resource mobilization perspective should contribute to a more complete understanding of “letting go”.
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Slade K, Kramer SE, Fairclough S, Richter M. Effortful listening: Sympathetic activity varies as a function of listening demand but parasympathetic activity does not. Hear Res 2021; 410:108348. [PMID: 34543837 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2021.108348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Research on listening effort has used various physiological measures to examine the biological correlates of listening effort but a systematic examination of the impact of listening demand on cardiac autonomic nervous system activity is still lacking. The presented study aimed to close this gap by assessing cardiac sympathetic and parasympathetic responses to variations in listening demand. For this purpose, 45 participants performed four speech-in-noise tasks differing in listening demand-manipulated as signal-to-noise ratio varying between +23 dB and -16 dB-while their pre-ejection period and respiratory sinus arrythmia responses were assessed. Cardiac responses showed the expected effect of listening demand on sympathetic activity, but failed to provide evidence for the expected listening demand impact on parasympathetic activity: Pre-ejection period reactivity increased with increasing listening demand across the three possible listening conditions and was low in the very high (impossible) demand condition, whereas respiratory sinus arrythmia did not show this pattern. These findings have two main implications. First, cardiac sympathetic responses seem to be the more sensitive correlate of the impact of task demand on listening effort compared to cardiac parasympathetic responses. Second, very high listening demand may lead to disengagement and correspondingly low effort and reduced cardiac sympathetic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Slade
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, LA1 4YF Lancaster, United Kingdom.
| | - Sophia E Kramer
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ear and Hearing, Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, De Boelelaan, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Stephen Fairclough
- School of Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, L3 3AF, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Richter
- School of Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, L3 3AF, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
Abstract. Attaining sports or health goals requires not only high motivation but also the willpower to translate sport-behavior intentions into successful action. This volitional regulation calls for the mobilization of effort to overcome obstacles in the pursuit of goals. The present article provides a theoretical and empirical overview of motivation intensity theory ( Brehm & Self, 1989 ) – a conceptual framework that makes clear and testable predictions about effort mobilization in various contexts. First, we present the guiding principles of this theory and its operationalizations by measures of effort-related cardiovascular reactivity and physical handgrip force. Second, we review a selection of empirical tests of the basic assumptions of this theory and the impact of psychological moderator variables such as affect, fatigue, pain, and personality on effort mobilization. Finally, we discuss important implications of these findings for the sports and health domains and make suggestions for future research.
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8
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Richter M, Mazeres F, Brinkmann K. Clarity of task difficulty moderates the impact of the explicit achievement motive on physical effort in hand grip tasks. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0252713. [PMID: 34086786 PMCID: PMC8177448 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Stable personality dispositions, like motives, are often assumed to exert a direct, stable impact on behavior. This also applies to the explicit achievement motive, which is supposed to influence the behavior that individuals select and how strongly they engage in it. Drawing on motivational intensity theory, we demonstrated in two studies that explicit achievement motive strength only predicted exerted force in a hand grip task if task difficulty was unclear. If task difficulty was clear, explicit achievement motive strength did not influence exerted force. Our findings suggest that the availability of information about the difficulty of motive satisfaction moderates the impact of the explicit achievement motive on behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Richter
- Effort Lab, School of Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Florence Mazeres
- Geneva Motivation Lab, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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9
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Hess TM, Knight RC. Adult Age Differences in the Effects of Chronic Mental Fatigue on Task-Related Fatigue, Appraisals, and Performance. MOTIVATION SCIENCE 2021; 7:122-132. [PMID: 34337104 DOI: 10.1037/mot0000216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Engagement in potentially beneficial activities is assumed to be based partially on perceived costs and benefits. Mental fatigue may be one factor that affects perceived costs. We examined age differences in both chronic and situational mental fatigue, and their relation to task perceptions and engagement levels. Younger (M age = 32.6) and older (M age = 73.1) adults completed questionnaires measuring subjective mental fatigue, physical and mental health, and motivational states, along with several assessments of cognitive ability. In addition, assessments of effort expenditure (systolic blood pressure) and task difficulty were collected during performance of a cognitively demanding memory-scan task. Two components of chronic mental fatigue (CMF) relating to affect and motivation were identified. Although the structure of CMF did not vary with age, CMF was differentially predictive of engagement and appraisal levels across groups. As CMF-Affect levels increased, older adults' task-difficulty appraisals increased more than those of younger adults. In addition, CMF-Affect was positively associated with levels of engagement in the young, but negatively associated in the old as memory load increased. Older adults also exhibited higher levels of situational fatigue than did the young, as evidenced by increased levels of effort expenditure as both time on task and objective demands increased. However, little relationship existed between chronic and situational mental fatigue in either age group. These findings suggest that the affective aspect of CMF is particularly consequential in older adults, with both task appraisals and engagement levels being negatively affected when fatigue is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Hess
- Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University
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10
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Framorando D, Gendolla GHE. It's about effort: Impact of implicit affect on cardiovascular response is context dependent. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13436. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Framorando
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology University of Geneva Geneva Switzerland
| | - Guido H. E. Gendolla
- Geneva Motivation Lab, FPSE, Section of Psychology University of Geneva Geneva Switzerland
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11
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Silvestrini N, Gendolla GHE. Affect and cognitive control: Insights from research on effort mobilization. Int J Psychophysiol 2019; 143:116-125. [PMID: 31302145 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
We present theory and research on effort mobilization that is relevant for understanding the role of affect in cognitive control. We posit that cognitive control and effort are closely related and introduce motivational intensity theory and supporting empirical evidence mainly based on cardiovascular measures of effort. Most important, we discuss the role of affect in the context of effort mobilization and cognitive control from different perspectives. We first present theories predicting affective influences on effort, namely the mood-behavior-model and the implicit-affect-primes-effort model, and supporting empirical evidence. Second, we discuss further implications of the resource conservation principle highlighting the aversive aspect of effort and review evidence for the impact of value and its affective component on effort and cognitive control. Finally, we present a recent integration of the neural mechanisms underlying both effort and cognitive control. We conclude that affective processes are necessary and instrumental for both effort mobilization and cognitive control.
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12
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Drace S, Korlat S, Đokić R. When stereotype threat makes me more or less intelligent: The informative role of emotions in effort mobilization and task performance. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 59:137-156. [PMID: 31001846 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Studies have shown that affective states could be used as diagnostic information for the assessment of situational demands and that, as such, they can regulate resource mobilization. Accordingly, it was found that negative feelings cause overestimation of situational demands, which then leads to effort mobilization during performance on easy tasks but disengagement on difficult tasks. The present research investigated whether this emotion-motivation link could explain the usual differences in achievement on easy and difficult tasks under stereotype threat (ST). In Study 1, participants in ST, no-ST, and no-ST with fear induction conditions had to resolve a series of easy logical problems. As expected, ST and no-ST-fear groups reported higher effort investment and achieved better performance than the no-ST group. In the following two studies, the no-ST-fear condition was replaced by an ST condition in which the informative potential of threat-related feelings was prevented before the task performance. Although participants under ST reported similar elevation in anxiety, the expected increase in easy task performance (Study 2) and decrease in difficult task performance (Study 3) were observed only in the standard ST groups. Taken together, our findings suggest that threat-related feelings could govern motivational processes and account for the effect of ST.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasa Drace
- University of Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina
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13
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Framorando D, Gendolla GH. Prime warning moderates implicit affect primes’ effect on effort-related cardiac response in men. Biol Psychol 2019; 142:62-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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14
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On the implicit influence of pain cues on cognitive effort: Evidence from cardiovascular reactivity. Biol Psychol 2017; 132:45-54. [PMID: 29126963 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Revised: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To extend previous findings on the impact of implicit affect on behavior, two experiments investigated the influence of priming pain cues on cognitive effort. Effort was assessed as cardiovascular reactivity (PEP, SBP, DBP, and HR) during an easy or difficult cognitive task integrating briefly presented and masked pain-related words. The control condition included neutral words (Experiment 1) or anger-related words (Experiment 2). The pain primes were expected to increase the perceived difficulty of the task and to result in stronger effort during the easy task, compared to the control condition, and to lower effort during the difficult task, due to disengagement. Overall, cardiovascular reactivity of both experiments supported the predictions. Moreover, pain primes increased self-reported subjective difficulty. Finally, most participants could not report the content of the primes. Findings are discussed regarding the influence of implicit processes in pain experience and regarding the self-regulatory consequences of the influence of pain on effort mobilization.
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15
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Large-scale neural networks and the lateralization of motivation and emotion. Int J Psychophysiol 2017; 119:41-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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16
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Psychological and neural mechanisms associated with effort-related cardiovascular reactivity and cognitive control: An integrative approach. Int J Psychophysiol 2017; 119:11-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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17
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Implicit Aging: Masked Age Primes Influence Effort-Related Cardiovascular Response in Young Adults. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-017-0074-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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18
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Abstract
In this review, we examine the paradigms and measures available for experimentally studying mixed emotions in the laboratory. For eliciting mixed emotions, we describe a mixed emotions film library that allows for the repeated elicitation of a specific homogeneous mixed emotional state and appropriately matched pure positive, pure negative, and neutral emotional states. For assessing mixed emotions, we consider subjective and objective measures that fall into univariate, bivariate, and multivariate measurement categories. As paradigms and measures for objectively studying mixed emotions are still in their early stages, we conclude by outlining future directions that focus on the reliability, temporal dynamics, and response coherence of mixed emotions paradigms and measures. This research will build a strong foundation for future studies and significantly advance our understanding of mixed emotions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James J Gross
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, USA
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19
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Zafeiriou A, Gendolla GHE. Implicit activation of the aging stereotype influences effort-related cardiovascular response: The role of incentive. Int J Psychophysiol 2017; 119:79-86. [PMID: 28131874 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 01/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Based on previous research on implicit effects on effort-related cardiovascular response and evidence that aging is associated with cognitive difficulties, we tested whether the mere activation of the aging stereotype can systematically influence young individuals' effort-mobilization during cognitive performance. Young participants performed an objectively difficult short-term memory task during which they processed elderly vs. youth primes and expected low vs. high incentive for success. When participants processed elderly primes during the task, we expected cardiovascular response to be weak in the low-incentive condition and strong in the high-incentive condition. Unaffected by incentive, effort in the youth-prime condition should fall in between the two elderly-prime cells. Effects on cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP) and heart rate (HR) largely supported these predictions. The present findings show for the first time that the mere activation of the aging stereotype can systematically influence effort mobilization during cognitive performance-even in young adults.
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Monetary incentive moderates the effect of implicit fear on effort-related cardiovascular response. Biol Psychol 2016; 117:150-158. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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21
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Richter M, Gendolla G, Wright R. Three Decades of Research on Motivational Intensity Theory. ADVANCES IN MOTIVATION SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adms.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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