Production of Sporotrichum thermophile xylanase by solid state fermentation utilizing deoiled Jatropha curcas seed cake and its application in xylooligosachharide synthesis

Fusarium graminearum as a producer of xylanases with low cellulases when grown on wheat bran

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Endophytic fungi of cacao had important xylanase activity when grown on wheat bran.

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F. graminearum strain Ec220 produced xylanases with low cellulolytic activity.

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Xylanase production was optimized using response surface methodology.

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Proteomic analysis revealed similarities with previously reported xylanases.

The xylanolytic potential of endophytic fungi isolated from leaves of Theobroma cacao was explored for the first time. Four fungal strains showed significant amounts of xylanase activity and low cellulase levels when grown on wheat bran as the sole carbon source. Strain Ec220 of Fusarium graminearum had the highest xylanase production (1.79 U/ml), whereas its cellulase activity was minimal (0.24 U/ml). Optimal conditions for xylanase production were: 154 h of incubation time, pH 5.79 and 29.8 °C. Furthermore, two protein spots detected by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis showed molecular weights (26.05 and 27.70 kDa) and isoelectric points (6.18 and 9.20) corresponding to previously reported F. graminearum xylanases, Xyl A and Xyl B, respectively. Therefore, endophytic fungi of T. cacao can be an important source of xylanolytic activities when cultured on wheat bran, and xylanases with low cellulases found in strain Ec220 require further characterization as they show promise for possible industrial applications.

Fungal lignocellulolytic enzymes and lignocellulose: A critical review on their contribution to multiproduct biorefinery and global biofuel research

The continuous increase in the global energy demand has diminished fossil fuel reserves and elevated the risk of environmental deterioration and human health. Biorefinery processes involved in producing bio-based energy-enriched chemicals have paved way to meet the energy demands. Compared to the thermochemical processes, fungal system biorefinery processes seems to be a promising approach for lignocellulose conversion. It also offers an eco-friendly and energy-efficient route for biofuel generation. Essentially, ligninolytic white-rot fungi and their enzyme arsenals degrade the plant biomass into structural constituents with minimal by-products generation. Hemi- or cellulolytic enzymes from certain soft and brown-rot fungi are always favoured to hydrolyze complex polysaccharides into fermentable sugars and other value-added products. However, the cost of saccharifying enzymes remains the major limitation, which hinders their application in lignocellulosic biorefinery. In the past, research has been focused on the role of lignocellulolytic fungi in biofuel production; however, a cumulative study comprising the contribution of the lignocellulolytic enzymes in biorefinery technologies is still lagging. Therefore, the overarching goal of this review article is to discuss the major contribution of lignocellulolytic fungi and their enzyme arsenal in global biofuel research and multiproduct biorefinery.

Production of xylooligosaccharides, bioethanol, and lignin from structural components of barley straw pretreated with a steam explosion

Barley straw (BS) is a potential source to obtain bioethanol and value-added products such as xylooligosaccharides (XOS) and lignin for application in diverse industries. In this study, BS was submitted to steam explosion pretreatment to valorize the main components of this lignocellulose biomass. For hemicellulose fraction valorization, different combinations of endo-β-(1,4)-D-xylanase enzyme with accessory enzymes (α-L-arabinofuranosidase, feruloy -esterase and acetylxylan-esterase) have been studied to produce XOS with a low degree of polymerization. The application of accessory enzymes combined with endo-β-(1,4)-D-xylanase enzymes turned out to be the most effective strategy for the formation of XOS. The solid fraction obtained after the pretreatment was submitted to presacharification and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process for bioethanol production. The resulting lignin-rich residue was characterized. In this integrated process, 13.0 g XOS (DP2-DP6), 12.6 g ethanol and 16.6 g lignin were obtained from 100 g of BS, achieving the goal of valorizing this agricultural residue.

Characterization and evaluation of a natural derived bacterial consortium for efficient lignocellulosic biomass valorization

A consortium (HPP) with improved ability in biomass conversion was achieved by adjusting the proportion of Pseudoxanthomonas taiwanensis in a natural consortium (HP), but the mechanism behind was unknown. Herein, the diversities of microbial community structure and gene functions of the consortia were analyzed first, and found that HPP had a more balanced microbial structure with enriched gene pathways related to cellular processes, environmental information processing and metabolism. Then, key genes responsible for biomass conversion were further analyzed, finding that their abundance and distribution contributed to HPP's efficient biomass conversion. Finally, consolidated bioprocessing of agricultural wastes by HPP was carried out to verify its enhanced ability, and ethanol with the highest yield that was ever reported was achieved at 0.28 g/g. This is the first study which reported the underlying mechanisms for synergistic effects of microbial consortia, and will guide the artificial construction of complex microbial consortium for specific purpose.

Biochemical properties of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes from Sporotrichum thermophile and their utility in bioethanol production using rice straw

Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes by Sporotrichum thermophile was enhanced using response surface methodology in solid-state fermentation (SSF) using wheat straw and cotton oil cake. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes were partially purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by ion exchange and gel filtration chromatographic techniques. Xylanase of S. thermophile is neutral xylanase displaying optimal activity at 60 °C with K_m and V_max values of 0.2 mg/mL and 238.05 µmole/min, respectively. All cellulases produced by the thermophilic mold showed optimal activity at pH 5.0 and 60 °C with K_m values of 0.312 mg/mL, 0.113 mg/mL, and 0.285 mM for carboxymethyl cellulase (CMCase), filter paper cellulase (FPase), and β-glucosidase, respectively and while V_max values were 181.81, 138.88, and 66.67 µmole/min, respectively. The presence of various metal ions (Ca²⁺ and Co²⁺), chemical reagent (glutaraldehyde), and surfactants (Tween 80 and Triton X-100) significantly improved the activities of all enzymes. All the enzymes showed high storage stability under low temperature (-20 and 4 °C) conditions. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes resulted in enhanced liberation of reducing sugars (356.34 mg/g) by hydrolyzing both cellulosic and hemicellulosic fractions of ammonia-pretreated rice straw as compared to other pretreatment methods used in the study. Fermentation of enzymatic hydrolysate resulted in the formation of 28.88 and 27.18 g/L of bioethanol in separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) process by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis, respectively. Therefore, cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes of S. thermophile exhibited ideal properties of biocatalysts useful in the saccharification of cellulosic and hemicellulosic fractions of rice straw for the production of bioethanol.

Optimized Production of Xylanase by Penicillium purpurogenum and Ultrasound Impact on Enzyme Kinetics for the Production of Monomeric Sugars From Pretreated Corn Cobs

Corn cob is an abundant organic source with significant potential in sustainable energy development. For the effective conversion of the feedstocks to valued commodities, effective biocatalysts are highly desired. The present study aims at optimizing the critical parameters required for xylanase production by Penicillium purpurogenum isolated from rotten wood sample using the Taguchi orthogonal array layout of L25 (5^∧6). The optimized conditions like temperature 40°C, pH 3, size of inoculum 1.2 × 10⁸ spores/ml, moisture 70%, peptone 0.8%, and 5 days of incubation resulted in 1,097 ± 6.76 U/gram dry substrate (gds) xylanase which was 65.72% more when compared to un-optimized production of xylanase. The xylanase thus produced, effectively carried out pretreated corn cob saccharification and the reaction was further improved with ultrasound assistance which has increased the saccharification yield to 12.02% along with significant reduction in reaction time. The saccharification efficiency of pretreated corn cob was found to be 80.29% more compared to the raw corn cob, reflecting its recalcitrance to digestion. Indeed, xylan being the second most abundant polymer in lignocellulosic biomass, considerable attention is being paid for its effective conversion to valued products.

Production, characteristics, and biotechnological applications of microbial xylanases

Microbial xylanases have gathered great attention due to their biotechnological potential at industrial scale for many processes. A variety of lignocellulosic materials, such as sugarcane bagasse, rice straw, rice bran, wheat straw, wheat bran, corn cob, and ragi bran, are used for xylanase production which also solved the great issue of solid waste management. Both solid-state and submerged fermentation have been used for xylanase production controlled by various physical and nutritional parameters. Majority of xylanases have optimum pH in the range of 4.0-9.0 with optimum temperature at 30-60 °C. For biochemical, molecular studies and also for successful application in industries, purification and characterization of xylanase have been carried out using various appropriate techniques. Cloning and genetic engineering are used for commercial-level production of xylanase, to meet specific economic viability and industrial needs. Microbial xylanases are used in various biotechnological applications like biofuel production, pulp and paper industry, baking and brewing industry, food and feed industry, and deinking of waste paper. This review describes production, characteristics, and biotechnological applications of microbial xylanases.

A detailed overview of xylanases: an emerging biomolecule for current and future prospective

Xylan is the second most abundant naturally occurring renewable polysaccharide available on earth. It is a complex heteropolysaccharide consisting of different monosaccharides such as l-arabinose, d-galactose, d-mannoses and organic acids such as acetic acid, ferulic acid, glucuronic acid interwoven together with help of glycosidic and ester bonds. The breakdown of xylan is restricted due to its heterogeneous nature and it can be overcome by xylanases which are capable of cleaving the heterogeneous β-1,4-glycoside linkage. Xylanases are abundantly present in nature (e.g., molluscs, insects and microorganisms) and several microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, yeast, and algae are used extensively for its production. Microbial xylanases show varying substrate specificities and biochemical properties which makes it suitable for various applications in industrial and biotechnological sectors. The suitability of xylanases for its application in food and feed, paper and pulp, textile, pharmaceuticals, and lignocellulosic biorefinery has led to an increase in demand of xylanases globally. The present review gives an insight of using microbial xylanases as an “Emerging Green Tool” along with its current status and future prospective.

Biodegradation of Residues from the Palo Santo (Bursera graveolens) Essential Oil Extraction and Their Potential for Enzyme Production Using Native Xylaria Fungi from Southern Ecuador

The degradation dynamics of lignin and cellulose were analyzed by means of a solid state biodegradation experiment, using residues from the essential oil extraction of the Palo Santo tree (Bursera graveolens). As such, two native Xylaria spp. and an exotic mushroom Trametes versicolor were incubated on the spent substrate (Residues of B. Graveolens, BGR’s). The relatively high lignin and cellulose contents of the BGRs (9.1% and 19%, respectively) indicated the potential of this resource for the production of methane (biogas) and ethanol. However, the degradation of the lignin and cellulose content could be traced back to the relatively high activity of the enzymes laccase, cellulase, and xylanase, produced by the fungi. The results showed that laccase (30.0 U/L and 26.6 U/L), cellulase (27.3 U/L and 35.8 U/L) and xylanase (189.7U/L and 128.3 U/L) activities of Xylaria feejeensis and Xylaria cf. microceras were generally higher than T. versicolor (9.0 U/L, 29.5 U/L, 99.5 U/L respectively). Furthermore, the total carbon (TC: 47.3%), total nitrogen (TN: 1.5%), total phosphorus (TP: 0.2%) and total potassium (TK: 1.2%) dynamics were analyzed during the experiment and their importance for the degradation process highlighted. The results of this work might serve as guidance for future studies in dry forest areas, while furthering the understanding of the potential use of native fungi as ecologic lignocellulosic decomposers and for industrial proposes.

Raw oil palm frond leaves as cost-effective substrate for cellulase and xylanase productions by Trichoderma asperellum UC1 under solid-state fermentation

Production of cellulases and xylanase by a novel Trichoderma asperellum UC1 (GenBank accession no. MF774876) under solid state fermentation (SSF) of raw oil palm frond leaves (OPFL) was optimized. Under optimum fermentation parameters (30 °C, 60-80% moisture content, 2.5 × 10⁶ spores/g inoculum size) maximum CMCase, FPase, β-glucosidase and xylanase activity were recorded at 136.16 IU/g, 26.03 U/g, 130.09 IU/g and 255.01 U/g, respectively. Cellulases and xylanase were produced between a broad pH range of pH 6.0-12.0. The enzyme complex that comprised of four endo-β-1,4-xylanases and endoglucanases, alongside exoglucanase and β-glucosidase showed thermophilic and acidophilic characteristics at 50-60 °C and pH 3.0-4.0, respectively. Glucose (16.87 mg/g) and fructose (18.09 mg/g) were among the dominant sugar products from the in situ hydrolysis of OPFL, aside from cellobiose (105.92 mg/g) and xylose (1.08 mg/g). Thermal and pH stability tests revealed that enzymes CMCase, FPase, β-glucosidase and xylanase retained 50% residual activities for up to 15.18, 4.06, 17.47 and 15.16 h of incubation at 60 °C, as well as 64.59, 25.14, 68.59 and 19.20 h at pH 4.0, respectively. Based on the findings, it appeared that the unique polymeric structure of raw OPFL favored cellulases and xylanase productions.

Enhanced endoxylanase production by Myceliophthora thermophila with applicability in saccharification of agricultural substrates

The production of enzymes by solid-state fermentation is an interesting process and currently used worldwide as it can be carried out in solid matrix in absence of free water. In present study, Myceliophthora thermophila BJTLRMDU3 produced high titres of endoxylanase (890.55 U/g DR, dry residue) using 5 g rice straw at pH 7.0 and at 45 °C with 1:7 (w/v) solid-to-moisture ratio with inoculum rate of 12 × 10⁶ spores/ml after 4 days in solid-state fermentation. High enzyme titre was produced after moistening the rice straw with solution containing ammonium sulphate (0.4%), K₂HPO₄ (1.0%), MgSO₄·7H₂O (0.3%), FeSO₄·7H₂O (0.03%) and CaCl₂ (0.03%). Addition of sucrose (2% w/v) and ammonium nitrate (2% w/v) further enhanced the endoxylanase production. A high endoxylanase production was achieved at water activity (a _W) of 0.95 (1639.80 U/g DR) that declined drastically below this value. Among different surfactants, Tween 20 (3% v/v) enhanced the secretion of endoxylanase (2047.91 U/g DR). Furthermore, on optimization of K₂HPO₄ concentration, it was found that 0.5% K₂HPO₄ improved (2191.28 U/g DR) endoxylanase production and overall 4.35-folds increase in production of endoxylanase was achieved after optimization of culture conditions. The enzyme has potential to liberate monomeric (xylose) as well as oligomeric (xylotiose, xylotetrose, and xylopantose) sugars from xylan. On saccharification of rice straw and corncob with endoxylanase, maximum yield of reducing sugars was 135.61 and 132.61 mg/g of substrate recorded after 48, and 36 h, respectively.

Thermozymes: Adaptive strategies and tools for their biotechnological applications

In today's scenario of global climate change, there is a colossal demand for sustainable industrial processes and enzymes from thermophiles. Plausibly, thermozymes are an important toolkit, as they are known to be polyextremophilic in nature. Small genome size and diverse molecular conformational modifications have been implicated in devising adaptive strategies. Besides, the utilization of chemical technology and gene editing attributions according to mechanical necessities are the additional key factor for efficacious bioprocess development. Microbial thermozymes have been extensively used in waste management, biofuel, food, paper, detergent, medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. To understand the strength of enzymes at higher temperatures different models utilize X-ray structures of thermostable proteins, machine learning calculations, neural networks, but unified adaptive measures are yet to be totally comprehended. The present review provides a recent updates on thermozymes and various interdisciplinary applications including the aspects of thermophiles bioengineering utilizing synthetic biology and gene editing tools.

Production, purification, characterization and application of a new halotolerant and thermostable endoglucanase of Botrytis ricini URM 5627

A halotolerant endoglucanase with a molecular mass of 39 kDa was obtained from the solid fermentation of sugarcane bagasse by the fungus Botrytis ricini URM 5627 and isolated using only two purification processes: fractionation with ammonium sulphate and size-exclusion chromatography resulting in an activity of 1289.83 U/mL. After the isolation, biochemical characterizations were performed, giving a temperature of 50 °C and optimum pH of 5. The enzyme was stable at 39-60 °C for 60 min and at a pH of 4-6. The enzymatic activity increased in the presence of Na⁺, Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ and decreased in the presence of Ca²⁺, Cu²⁺, and Fe²⁺. The endoglucanase revealed a halotolerant profile since its activity increased proportionally to an increase in NaCl concentration. The maximum activity was reached at 2 M NaCl with a 75% increase in activity. The enzyme had a K_m of 0.1299 ± 0.0096 mg/mL and a V_max of 0.097 ± 0.00121 mol/min/mL. During application in saccharification tests, the enzyme was able to hydrolyse sugarcane bagasse, rice husk, and wheat bran, with the highest production of reducers/fermentable sugars within 24 h of saccharification for wheat bran (137.21 mg/g). Therefore, these properties combined make this isolated enzyme a potential candidate for biotechnological and industrial applications.

Enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic residues using cellulolytic enzyme extract produced by Penicillium roqueforti ATCC 10110 cultivated on residue of yellow mombin fruit

The aim of this work was to enzymatic saccharification of food waste was performed by crude enzymatic cellulolytic extract produced by P. roqueforti cultivated in yellow mombin residue. The best yield of reducing sugars (259.45mgg^-1) was achieved with sugarcane bagasse after 4h; the hydrolysis of corn cob, rice husk and peanut hull resulted in yields around 128-180mgg^-1. The addition of 10mmolL^-1 of Mn²⁺ potentiated the saccharification of sugarcane bagasse, in about 86%. The temperature and substrate (sugarcane bagasse) concentration parameters were optimized using a Doehlert Design and, a maximum sugar yield of 662.34±26.72mgg^-1 was achieved at 62.40°C, 0.22% (w/v) of substrate, with the addition of Mn²⁺. Sugar yield was significantly high when compared to previous studies available in scientific literature, suggesting the use of crude cellulolytic supplemented with Mn²⁺ an alternative and promising process for saccharification of sugarcane bagasse.

Purification and characterization of β-mannanase from Aspergillus terreus and its applicability in depolymerization of mannans and saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass

Aspergillus terreus FBCC 1369 was grown in solid-state culture under statistically optimized conditions. β-Mannanase was purified to apparent homogeneity by ultrafiltration, anion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. A purification factor of 10.3-fold was achieved, with the purified enzyme exhibiting specific activity of 53 U/mg protein. The purified β-mannanase was optimally active at pH 7.0 and 70 °C and displayed stability over a broad pH range of 4.0–8.0 and a 30 min half-life at 80 °C. The molecular weight of β-mannanase was calculated as ~49 kDa by SDS-PAGE. The enzyme exhibited K_m and V_max values of 5.9 mg/ml and 39.42 µmol/ml/min, respectively. β-Mannanase activity was stimulated by β-mercaptoethanol and strongly inhibited by Hg²⁺. The β-Mannanase did not hydrolyze mannobiose and mannotriose, but only mannotetraose liberating mannose and mannotriose. This indicated that at least four mannose residues were required for catalytic activity. Oligosaccharide with a degree of polymerization (DP) three was the predominant product in the case of locust bean gum (16.5 %) and guar gum (15.8 %) hydrolysis. However, the enzyme liberated DP4 oligosaccharide (24 %) exclusively from konjac gum. This property can be exploited in oligosaccharides production with DP 3–4. β-Mannanase hydrolyzed pretreated lignocelluloses and liberated reducing sugars (% theoretical yield) from copra meal (30 %). This property is an important factor for the bioconversion of the biomass.

Thermoresistant xylanases from Trichoderma stromaticum: Application in bread making and manufacturing xylo-oligosaccharides

The enzymes Xyl1 and Xyl2 from T. stromaticum were purified and identified by mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS). Xyl1 contained three proteins with similarity to xylanase family 10, 62 and anarabinofuranosidase of the Trichoderma genus and Xyl2 contained a protein with similarity to endo-1,4-β-xylanase. High xylanase activity was found at 50°C for Xyl1 and 60°C for Xyl2 and pH 5.0 for both, retaining more than 80% of activities for one hour at 60°C and pH 5-8. Ag²⁺ and β-mercaptoethanol increased while SDS and EDTA inhibited the xylanase activity of both Xyl1 and Xyl2 extracts. The Km and V_max values for purified Xyl2 were 9.6mg/mL and 28.57μmol/min/mg, respectively. In application tests, both Xyl1 and Xyl2 were effective in degrading beechwood xylan to produce xylo-oligosaccharides. In baking, adding Xyl1 increased the softness and volume of wheat bread and whole grain bread, qualities increasingly desired by consumers in this segment.

Screening, statistical optimized production, and application of β-mannanase from some newly isolated fungi

Eighty-eight fungi isolated from soil and decaying organic matter were screened for mannanolytic activity. Twenty-eight fungi produced extracellular mannanase on locust bean gum as evidenced by zone of hydrolysis produced on mannan agar gel. Six prominent producers, including four Fusarium species namely Fusarium fusarioides NFCCI 3282, Fusarium solani NFCCI 3283, Fusarium equiseti NFCCI 3284, Fusarium moniliforme NFCCI 3287 with Cladosporium cladosporioides NFCCI 3285 and Acrophialophora levis NFCCI 3286 produced the β-mannanase in the range of 84-140 nkat/mL. All these grew well on particulate substrates in solid-state fermentation (SSF), producing relatively higher titers on mannan-rich palm kernel cake (PKC) and copra meal. Two high yielding strains, F. equiseti (1747 nkat/gds) and A. levis (897 nkat/gds) were selected for statistical optimization of mannanase on PKC. Interaction of two critical solid state fermentation parameters, pH and moisture on mannanase production by these two molds was studied by response surface method. Optimized production on PKC resulted in three- to fourfold enhancement in enzyme yield was observed in case of F. equiseti (5945 nkat/gds) and A. levis (4726 nkat/gds). HPLC analysis of mannan hydrolysate indicated that F. equiseti and A. levis mannanase performed efficient hydrolysis of konjac gum (up to 99%) with exclusive mannooligosaccahride (DP of 4) production. A seminative SDS-PAGE revealed that A. levis and F. solani produced three isoforms, F. moniliforme produced two isoforms while F. fusarioides, F. equiseti, and C. cladosporioides produced a single enzyme.

Experimental design of response surface methodology used for utilisation of palm kernel cake as solid substrate for optimised production of fungal mannanase

The results obtained from this work strongly indicate that the solid state fermentation (SSF) system using the palm kernel cake (PKC) as a substrate is an economical method for the production of β-mannanase at extremely low operational cost based on the fact that PKC is one of the cheap and abundant agro-waste by-products of the palm oil industry. Under initial conditions, i.e. 2 mm particle size of PKC, the moisture ratio of 1:1 of PKC:moistening agent and pH 7, Malbranchea cinnamomea NFCCI 3724 produced 109 U/gram distribution of the substrate (gds). The production of β-mannanase was optimised by the statistical approach response surface methodology (RSM) using independent variables, namely initial moisture (12.5), pH (9.0) and solka floc (100 mg). Noticeably, six fold enhancement of β-mannanase production (599 U/gds) was obtained under statistically optimised conditions. HPLC results revealed that β-mannanase is an endo-active enzyme that generated manno-oligosaccharides with a degree of polymerisation (DP) of 3 and 4. Semi-native PAGE analysis revealed that M. cinnamomea produced three isoforms of mannanase. Selective production of oligosaccharide makes M. cinnamomea β-mannanase an attractive enzyme for use in food and nutraceutical industries.

Phytase production by solid-state fermentation of groundnut oil cake by Aspergillus niger: A bioprocess optimization study for animal feedstock applications

This investigation deals with the use of agro-industrial waste, namely groundnut oil cake (GOC), for phytase production by the fungi Aspergillus niger NCIM 563. Plackett-Burman design (PBD) was used to evaluate the effect of 11 process variables and studies here showed that phytase production was significantly influenced by glucose, dextrin, distilled water, and MgSO4 · 7H2O. The use of response surface methodology (RSM) by Box-Behnken design (BBD) of experiments further enhanced the production by a remarkable 36.67-fold from the original finding of 15 IU/gds (grams of dry substrate) to 550 IU/gds. This is the highest solid-state fermentation (SSF) phytase production reported when compared to other microorganisms and in fact betters the best known by a factor of 2. Experiments carried out using dried fermented koji for phosphorus and mineral release and also thermal stability have shown the phytase to be as efficient as the liquid enzyme extract. Also, the enzyme, while exhibiting optimal activity under acidic conditions, was found to have significant activity in a broad range of pH values (1.5-6.5). The studies suggest the suitability of the koji supplemented with phytase produced in an SSF process by the "generally regarded as safe" (GRAS) microorganism A. niger as a cost-effective value-added livestock feed when compared to that obtained by submerged fermentation (SmF).

Myceliophthora thermophila syn. Sporotrichum thermophile: a thermophilic mould of biotechnological potential

Myceliophthora thermophila syn. Sporotrichum thermophile is a ubiquitous thermophilic mould with a strong ability to degrade organic matter during optimal growth at 45 °C. Both genome analysis and experimental data have suggested that the mould is capable of hydrolyzing all major polysaccharides found in biomass. The mould is able to secrete a large number of hydrolytic enzymes (cellulases, laccases, xylanases, pectinases, lipases, phytases and some other miscellaneous enzymes) employed in various biotechnological applications. Characterization of the biomass-hydrolyzing activity of wild and recombinant enzymes suggests that this mould is highly efficient in biomass decomposition at both moderate and high temperatures. The native enzymes produced by the mould are more efficient in activity than their mesophilic counterparts beside their low enzyme titers. The mould is able to synthesize various biomolecules, which are used in multifarious applications. Genome sequence data of M. thermophila also supported the physiological data. This review describes the biotechnological potential of thermophilic mould, M. thermophila supported by genomic and experimental evidences.