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Zhu L, Li W, Zhang X, Wang L, Jin J, Zhou Z, Zhang L. Fully upgrade bamboo biomass into three multifunctional products through biphasic γ-valerolactone and aqueous phosphoric acid pretreatment. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2024; 406:130946. [PMID: 38857635 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2024.130946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
In this manuscript, three components of lignocellulosic biomass were obtained by deconstructing bamboo with γ-valerolactone-H2O biphasic system, and the delignification rate of 80.92 % was achieved at 120 °C for 90 min. Lignin nanospheres with diameters ranging from 75 nm to 2 um could be customized by varying the self-assembly rate. Furthermore, the lignin nanospheres-poly(vinyl alcohol) film was prepared by cross-linking lignin nanospheres and poly(vinyl alcohol), which can obtain 90 % ultraviolet absorption capacity, while the light transmittance in non-ultraviolet band was almost unchanged. At the same time, due to the strong hydrogen formation between lignin nanospheres and poly(vinyl alcohol) bond network, the tensile properties of the composite film were also improved by 30 %. Besides, the high specific surface area of biomass-derived porous biochar (2056 m2/g) can be obtained after carbonization of solid residues at 850 °C for 2 h, which was almost 8 times the specific surface area of the direct biomass carbonization due to the removal of lignin and hemicellulose. biomass-derived porous biochar can be used as an adsorbent, with a CO2 capture capacity of 4.5 mmol g-1 at normal temperature (25 °C, 1 bar). The filtrate after the reaction contained a large amount of hemicellulose oligomers, which can be reacted with dichloromethane at 170 °C for 1 h to obtain the furfural yield of 74 %. In summary, the proposed biorefinery scheme achieves a full-component upgrade of lignocellulose and can be further applied in various downstream fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leyu Zhu
- Laboratory Of Low Carbon Clean Energy, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230023, PR China
| | - Wenzhi Li
- Laboratory Of Low Carbon Clean Energy, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230023, PR China; Institute of Energy, Hefei Comprehensive National Science Center, Hefei 230031, PR China.
| | - Xia Zhang
- Laboratory Of Low Carbon Clean Energy, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230023, PR China
| | - Liqun Wang
- Laboratory Of Low Carbon Clean Energy, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230023, PR China
| | - Jingting Jin
- Laboratory Of Low Carbon Clean Energy, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230023, PR China
| | - Zheng Zhou
- Laboratory Of Low Carbon Clean Energy, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230023, PR China
| | - Lulu Zhang
- Anhui University Of Science & Technology, School of Chemical and Blasting Engineering, PR China
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2
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Zhang Y, Wang Y, Li W, Liu S, Tan X, Zhang Q, Miao C, Gao J, Song X, Sun C, Li K, Ragauskas AJ, Zhuang X. Valorization of Lignocellulose with One-Step Acidified Monophasic Phenoxyethanol Fractionation. CHEMSUSCHEM 2024:e202400487. [PMID: 38807568 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202400487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Effective fractionation of lignocelluosic biomass and subsequent valorization of all three major components under mild conditions were achieved. Pretreatment with acidified monophasic phenoxyethanol (EPH) efficiently removed 92.6 % lignin and 80 % xylan from poplar at 110 °C in 60 min, yielding high-value EPH-xyloside, EPH-modified lignin (EPHL), and a solid residue nearly purely composed of carbohydrates. After removing the grafted acetyl groups using 1 % NaOH at 50 °C, the highest enzymatic digestibility reached 92.3 %. EPHL could be recovered in high yield and purity with an uncondensed structure, while xylose was converted to EPH-xyloside, a potential precursor in biomedical industries. Additionally, the acidified monophasic EPH solvent could effectively fractionate biomass from species other than hardwood, achieving over 70 % delignification from recalcitrant pinewood under the same mild conditions, demonstrating the high potential of monophasic EPH pretreatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqi Zhang
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, PR China
| | - Yunxuan Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Wuhuan Li
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, PR China
| | - Shijun Liu
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
| | - Xuesong Tan
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
| | - Quan Zhang
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Anhui University of Technology, Ma'anshan, Anhui, 243002, PR China
| | - Changlin Miao
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
| | - Jingjing Gao
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
| | - Xueping Song
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, PR China
| | - Chihe Sun
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of MOE, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, PR China
| | - Kai Li
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530004, PR China
| | - Arthur J Ragauskas
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA
- Joint Institute for Biological Science, Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
- Center of Renewable Carbon, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Xinshu Zhuang
- Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, Chinese Academy of Sciences, CAS Key Laboratory of Renewable Energy, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy Research and Development, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, PR China
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3
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Palliprath S, Poolakkalody NJ, Ramesh K, Mangalan SM, Kabekkodu SP, Santiago R, Manisseri C. Pretreatment of sugarcane postharvest leaves by γ-valerolactone/water/FeCl3 system for enhanced glucan and bioethanol production. INDUSTRIAL CROPS AND PRODUCTS 2023; 197:116571. [DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.116571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
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4
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Deng H, Xu W, Zhang D, Li X, Shi J. Recent Advances in Application of Polyoxometalates in Lignocellulose Pretreatment and Transformation. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15102401. [PMID: 37242976 DOI: 10.3390/polym15102401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Lignocellulose, composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, holds immense promise as a renewable resource for the production of sustainable chemicals and fuels. Unlocking the full potential of lignocellulose requires efficient pretreatment strategies. In this comprehensive review, efforts were taken to survey the latest developments in polyoxometalates (POMs)-assisted pretreatment and conversion of lignocellulosic biomass. An outstanding finding highlighted in this review is that the deformation of the cellulose structure from I to II accompanied by the removal of xylan/lignin through the synergistic effect of ionic liquids (ILs) and POMs resulted in a significant increase in glucose yield and improved cellulose digestibility. Furthermore, successful integration of POMs with deep eutectic solvents (DES) or γ-valerolactone/water (GVL/water) systems has demonstrated efficient lignin removal, opening avenues for advanced biomass utilization. This review not only presents the key findings and novel approaches in POMs-based pretreatment but also addresses the current challenges and prospects for large-scale industrial implementation. By offering a comprehensive assessment of the progress in this field, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and industry professionals aiming to harness the potential of lignocellulosic biomass for sustainable chemical and fuel production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyu Deng
- Key Laboratory of Wooden Materials Science and Engineering of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
| | - Wenbiao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Wooden Materials Science and Engineering of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Materials Science and Technology of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
| | - Dan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Materials Science and Technology of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
| | - Xiangyu Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Forest Biomass Green Manufacturing of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
| | - Junyou Shi
- Key Laboratory of Wooden Materials Science and Engineering of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
- Key Laboratory of Biomass Materials Science and Technology of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Forest Biomass Green Manufacturing of Jilin Province, Beihua University, Binjiang East Road, Jilin 132013, China
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5
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Chen J, Si X, Wang Y, Ren Z, Liu Q, Lu F. Efficient Fractionation and Catalytic Valorization of Raw Biomass in ϵ-Caprolactone and Water. CHEMSUSCHEM 2023; 16:e202202162. [PMID: 36610014 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202202162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Efficient fractionation and utilization of the whole biomass is particularly attractive but remains a great challenge, owing to the recalcitrance of biomass. In this study, a simple and efficient approach is developed to obtain high-purity cellulose with a delignification degree of 97.5 % in ϵ-caprolactone and water. FTIR spectroscopy reveals that ϵ-caprolactone and water act in synergy to remove lignin from raw biomass and afford cellulose with clear macrofibrils. A linear positive correlation between the contents of hemicellulose and lignin is observed for the separated cellulose pulp. This mixed solvent exhibits good performance for the removal of lignin from various agricultural and forestry wastes. Moreover, nearly complete transformation of the whole biomass constituents is achieved with Ni-Al catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiali Chen
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoqin Si
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, P. R. China
| | - Yubao Wang
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, P. R. China
| | - Zhiwen Ren
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, P. R. China
| | - Qian Liu
- Henan Institute of Advanced Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, P. R. China
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, P. R. China
| | - Fang Lu
- Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, 116023, P. R. China
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6
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Ding Z, Kumar Awasthi S, Kumar M, Kumar V, Mikhailovich Dregulo A, Yadav V, Sindhu R, Binod P, Sarsaiya S, Pandey A, Taherzadeh MJ, Rathour R, Singh L, Zhang Z, Lian Z, Kumar Awasthi M. A thermo-chemical and biotechnological approaches for bamboo waste recycling and conversion to value added product: Towards a zero-waste biorefinery and circular bioeconomy. FUEL 2023; 333:126469. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.126469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
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7
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Momayez F, Hedenström M, Stagge S, Jönsson LJ, Martín C. Valorization of hydrolysis lignin from a spruce-based biorefinery by applying γ-valerolactone treatment. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 359:127466. [PMID: 35710049 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hydrolysis lignin, i.e., the hydrolysis residue of cellulosic ethanol plants, was extracted with the green solvent γ-valerolactone (GVL). Treatments at 170-210 °C were performed with either non-acidified GVL/water mixtures (NA-GVL) or with mixtures containing sulfuric acid (SA-GVL). SA-GVL treatment at 210 °C resulted in the highest lignin solubilization (64% (w/w) of initial content), and 76% of the solubilized mass was regenerated by water-induced precipitation. Regenerated lignins were characterized through compositional analysis with sulfuric acid, as well as using pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), high-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC), solid-state cross-polarization/magic angle spinning 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (CP/MAS 13C NMR) spectroscopy, 1H-13C heteronuclear single-quantum coherence NMR (HSQC NMR), and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The characterization revealed that the main difference between regenerated lignins was their molecular weight. Molecular weight averages increased with treatment temperature, and they were higher and had broader distribution for SA-GVL lignins than for NA-GVL lignins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Forough Momayez
- Umeå University, Department of Chemistry, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Stefan Stagge
- Umeå University, Department of Chemistry, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Leif J Jönsson
- Umeå University, Department of Chemistry, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Carlos Martín
- Umeå University, Department of Chemistry, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden; Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Department of Biotechnology, N-2317 Hamar, Norway.
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8
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Zhao J, Yao F, Hu C. Enhancing enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency of crop straws via tetrahydrofuran/water co-solvent pretreatment. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 358:127428. [PMID: 35660654 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis are critical steps in bio-ethanol production from lignocellulose. The enhancement of enzymatic hydrolysis of several typical crop straws and the particle size adaptability of sorghum straw by tetrahydrofuran/water co-solvent pretreatment were studied. Efficient cellulose conversions (>83.2%) and adequate hemicellulose conversion (>40.7%) were obtained from pretreated rice straw, sorghum straw, wheat straw and corn stover in enzymatic hydrolysis, and the highest glucose yield and xylose yield were 274.0 and 26.3 mg/g dry solid, respectively. Glucose production of 140.4 mg/mL was obtained when the pretreated sorghum straw with mixed particle sizes was employed in enzymatic hydrolysis at 20% solid loading (8 FPU/g cellulose). When the enzyme loading reduced to 4 FPU/g cellulose, 221.7 mg/g dry solid glucose yield and 68.6% enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency could be still obtained with 15% solid loading, exhibiting high potential for bio-ethanol production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, PRChina
| | - Fengpei Yao
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, PRChina
| | - Changwei Hu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, PRChina.
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9
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Zhan Y, Wang M, Ma T, Li Z. Enhancing the potential production of bioethanol with bamboo by γ-valerolactone/water pretreatment. RSC Adv 2022; 12:16942-16954. [PMID: 35754883 PMCID: PMC9171899 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra02421g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the effect of the γ-valerolactone (GVL)/H2O pretreatment system on bamboo (Neosinocalamus affinis) for enzymatic hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation was investigated. The performance characterization of the pretreated bamboo substrates, including the chemical composition, the structural characteristics, and the ability to produce bioethanol, were evaluated. The recovered substrates were enzymatically hydrolyzed for 48 h and then fermented to bioethanol. For the cellulose in the raw bamboo material, the highest cellulose-to-glucose conversion yield (CGCY) was achieved at 140 °C for 2 h with GVL : H2O = 8 : 2, which was 73.39%, and the cellulose-to-ethanol conversion yield (CECY) was 67.00%. This indicated that 183.5 kg of bioethanol could be produced per ton of bamboo, which was 9.71-folds higher than that directly converted from the untreated raw bamboo powder. Under these conditions, 50.60% of the active lignin can be recovered and be used as a wood-derived feedstock for further high-valued utilization. Meanwhile, the maximum concentration of fermentation inhibitors formed after pretreatment was about 140.9 mmol L-1, and had weak inhibition to the subsequent reaction. It has been shown that the cellulose could be effectively separated from bamboo and converted into bioethanol through the GVL/H2O pretreatment system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawei Zhan
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology Beijing 100102 China
| | - Meixin Wang
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology Beijing 100102 China
| | - Tengfei Ma
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology Beijing 100102 China
| | - Zhiqiang Li
- International Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration/Beijing for Bamboo & Rattan Science and Technology Beijing 100102 China
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Ding D, Hu J, Hui L, Liu Z, Shao L. Valorization of Miscanthus × giganteus by γ-Valerolactone/H 2O/FeCl 3 system toward efficient conversion of cellulose and hemicelluloses. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 270:118388. [PMID: 34364629 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
γ-Valerolactone (GVL), a biomass-derived green chemical, offers an environmentally responsible solvent for conversion of lignocellulose to high value-added chemicals. Herein, we report a two-step process for directly producing cellulosic residual, furfural and lignin from Miscanthus × giganteus (M. × giganteus) bypassing the isolation of xylose, which exhibits promising advantage in energy reduction. The optimized pretreatment (100 mM FeCl3 at 160 °C for 60 min) induced significant xylan removal (98.4%), resulting in rugged fibre surface, thus leading to the peak cellulose conversion of 99.3%. Furfural yield in the second step reached to 76.6% after 100 mM FeCl3 catalyzed GVL/H2O treatment at 180 °C for 10 min without addition of any chemical. The extracted lignin showed representative structure (such as β-O-4', β-β' linkages) and medium molecular weight (4275.5 g/mol). 79.6% of furfural can be recovered by distillation. This study proposes a systematic and energy efficient approach for maximizing biomass utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayong Ding
- College of Light Industry Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China.
| | - Jianquan Hu
- College of Light Industry Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Lanfeng Hui
- College of Light Industry Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Zhong Liu
- College of Light Industry Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Lupeng Shao
- Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Science & Technology of Ministry of Education, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 250353, China
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Cellulose Recovery from Agri-Food Residues by Effective Cavitational Treatments. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11104693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Residual biomass from agri-food production chain and forestry are available in huge amounts for further valorisation processes. Delignification is usually the crucial step in the production of biofuels by fermentation as well as in the conversion of cellulose into high added-value compounds. High-intensity ultrasound (US) and hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) have been widely exploited as effective pretreatment techniques for biomass conversion and in particular for cellulose recovery. Due to their peculiar mechanisms, cavitational treatments promote an effective lignocellulosic matrix dismantling with delignification at low temperature (35–50 °C). Cavitation also promotes cellulose decrystallization due to a partial depolymerization. The aim of this review is to highlight recent advances in US and HC-assisted delignification and further cellulose recovery and valorisation.
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Trevorah R, Huynh T, Brkljača R, Othman MZ. Structural and Morphological Analysis of Cellulose Pulp Produced from the Fractionation of Eucalyptus obliqua Sawdust Using γ-Valerolactone. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:4126-4136. [PMID: 33644535 PMCID: PMC7906597 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c03616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Organic solvents offer promising methods for the fractionation of Eucalyptus obliqua lignocellulosic biomass. This study investigated the impact of γ-valerolactone (GVL) fractionation on the morphology of cellulose and its internal structure using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The solubilized lignin precipitated on the macrofibril surface as lignin spheres. GVL fractionation significantly increased the crystallinity of the recovered pulps from 0.29 for the sawdust to an average of 0.53 and a maximum of 0.66. The main states of cellulose that were susceptible to hydrolysis during the fractionation were amorphous and surface cellulose, both of which were reduced significantly, while paracrystalline and pure crystalline fractions in the pulp increased. It was concluded that GVL fractionation can produce a crystalline cellulose pulp of high quality suitable for further processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond
M. Trevorah
- School
of Engineering, RMIT University, P.O. Box 2476, Melbourne 3001, Australia
| | - Tien Huynh
- School
of Science, RMIT University, P.O. Box 71, Bundoora 3083, Australia
| | - Robert Brkljača
- School
of Science, RMIT University, P.O. Box 71, Bundoora 3083, Australia
| | - Maazuza Z. Othman
- School
of Engineering, RMIT University, P.O. Box 2476, Melbourne 3001, Australia
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13
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Zhang Y, Wang Z, Feng J, Pan H. Maximizing utilization of poplar wood by microwave-assisted pretreatment with methanol/dioxane binary solvent. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 300:122657. [PMID: 31918300 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Organosolv is a promising pretreatment for lignocellulose biorefinery on the integrated utilization of full components from lignocellulosic biomass. A highly efficient pretreatment process using methanol/dioxane binary solvent with microwave irradiation is proposed in this study. Poplar wood was fractionated to high quality cellulosic residue, lignin, and monosaccharide derivatives under mild conditions (120 °C, 10 min). The follow-up enzymatic hydrolysis of resulting cellulosic residues achieved almost theoretical glucan conversion over 99%. The 2D-NMR and GPC results showed that the recovered lignin precipitates contain low amount of condensed structures and have relatively narrow molecular weight distributions. The composition analysis of monosaccharide derivatives indicated that the methanol/dioxane solvent tends to convert monosaccharides into glycosides rather than further degradation by-products. The mass balance result estimated that totally 74.2% of raw poplar can be utilized by the pretreatment proposed in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjian Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China; College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Zining Wang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Junfeng Feng
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China; College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Hui Pan
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China; College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 159# Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, PR China.
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Li S, Zhao C, Yue F, Lu F. Revealing Structural Modifications of Lignin in Acidic γ-Valerolactone-H 2O Pretreatment. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12010116. [PMID: 31948026 PMCID: PMC7023100 DOI: 10.3390/polym12010116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-valerolactone (GVL)/H2O/acid solvent mixtures has been used in chemical pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass, it was claimed that GVL lignins were structurally close to proto (native) lignins, or having low molecular weight with narrow polydispersity, however, the structural changes of GVL lignins have not been investigated. In this study, β-O-4 (β-aryl ether, GG), β-5 (phenylcoumaran), and β-β (resinol) lignin model compounds were treated by an acidic GVL-H2O solvent system, a promising pretreatment of lignocellulose for biomass utilization, to investigate the structural changes possibly related to the lignin involved. NMR characterization of the products isolated from the treated GG indicated that a phenyl dihydrobenzofuran, having typical C-H correlations at δC/δH 50.74/4.50 and 93.49/4.60 ppm in its HSQC spectrum, was produced from GG. In the pretreatment, the released formaldehyde from GG reacted fast with GG to form a novel 1,3-dioxane intermediate whose characteristic HSQC signals were: δC/δH 94.15–94.48/4.81–5.18 ppm and 80.82–83.34/4.50–4.94 ppm. The β-5 model, dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol, was converted into phenylcoumarone and stilbene having benzaldehyde that resulted from the allyl alcohol side chain. The β-β model, syringaresinol, was isomerized to form a mixture of syringaresinol, epi-, and dia-syringaresinol although being degraded slightly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suxiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Rd., Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510640, China (C.Z.); (F.Y.)
| | - Chengke Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Rd., Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510640, China (C.Z.); (F.Y.)
| | - Fengxia Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Rd., Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510640, China (C.Z.); (F.Y.)
| | - Fachuang Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Rd., Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510640, China (C.Z.); (F.Y.)
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Green Fine Chemicals, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-020-8711-3953
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15
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Jia L, Qin Y, Wen P, Zhang T, Zhang J. Alkaline post-incubation improves cellulose hydrolysis after γ-valerolactone/water pretreatment. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 278:440-443. [PMID: 30737065 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.01.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2018] [Revised: 01/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The impact of γ-valerolactone/water (GVL/H2O) pretreatment coupled with alkaline post-incubation on the digestibility of cellulose substrates was investigated. When Avicel was pretreated by GVL/H2O with H2SO4 as catalyst, the glucan conversion decreased from 27% (untreated Avicel) to 16% due to the esterification of cellulose after pretreatment. After incubation of GVL/H2O pretreated Avicel with 1% NaOH at 50 °C for 1 h, the glucan conversion enhanced to 20%. When corn stover (CS) pretreated by GVL/H2O with 25 mM H2SO4 was used as substrate, alkaline post-incubation removed 72% and 50% of the hemicellulose and lignin, respectively, and increased the glucan conversion by 1.9-fold consequently. Moreover, higher cellulases adsorption capacity, affinity and binding strength on GVL/H2O pretreated CS was achieved after alkaline post-incubation. These results indicated that the improved digestibility of GVL/H2O pretreated lignocellulose by alkaline post-incubation was attributed to the depletion of ester groups on cellulose and removal of hemicellulose and lignin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Jia
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yujie Qin
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Peiyao Wen
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tian Zhang
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Junhua Zhang
- College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, No. 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China; Co-Innovation Center for Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Products, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
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16
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Cai L, Zhang Y, Hu G, Guo Y, Jin L, Xu Q, Liu Z, Xie H. A Single Step Fractionation of Lignocellulose in Aqueous Solutions of a Carboxylic Acid‐Functionalized Ionic Liquid. ChemistrySelect 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201803450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Long Cai
- Department of Polymer Materials and EngineeringCollege of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University Huaxi District Guiyang 550025 P. R. China
| | | | - Gang Hu
- Department of Polymer Materials and EngineeringCollege of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University Huaxi District Guiyang 550025 P. R. China
| | - Yuanlong Guo
- Department of Polymer Materials and EngineeringCollege of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University Huaxi District Guiyang 550025 P. R. China
| | - Longming Jin
- Department of Polymer Materials and EngineeringCollege of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University Huaxi District Guiyang 550025 P. R. China
| | - Qinqin Xu
- Department of Polymer Materials and EngineeringCollege of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University Huaxi District Guiyang 550025 P. R. China
| | | | - Haibo Xie
- Department of Polymer Materials and EngineeringCollege of Materials and Metallurgy, Guizhou University Huaxi District Guiyang 550025 P. R. China
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17
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Meng X, Parikh A, Seemala B, Kumar R, Pu Y, Wyman CE, Cai CM, Ragauskas AJ. Characterization of fractional cuts of co-solvent enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation lignin isolated by sequential precipitation. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 272:202-208. [PMID: 30340186 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.09.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Lignin valorization is significantly hindered by the intrinsic heterogeneity of its complex structures and variability of biomass feedstocks. Fractionation of lignin can overcome these challenges by producing functionally distinct lignin cuts that can be further tailored to end products. Herein, lignin was extracted and depolymerized from poplar by the co-solvent enhanced lignocellulosic fractionation method with renewable THF to obtain CELF lignin. Several solvents were screened to separate soluble and insoluble fractions from the parent CELF lignin. The ethanol soluble portion was then fractionated into different molecular weight cuts via sequential precipitation of the lignin by reducing the concentration of THF. The physicochemical structures of different CELF lignin cuts were elucidated by GPC and NMR techniques. These results suggest that CELF lignin cuts with lower molecular weight contain progressively higher phenolic and carboxylic acid OH groups, which can be more suitable as green antioxidants than the parent lignin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianzhi Meng
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Aakash Parikh
- Bourns College of Engineering - Center of Environmental and Research Technology (CE-CERT), University of California, Riverside, CA 92507, USA; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Bourns College of Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Bhogeswararao Seemala
- Bourns College of Engineering - Center of Environmental and Research Technology (CE-CERT), University of California, Riverside, CA 92507, USA; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Bourns College of Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Rajeev Kumar
- Bourns College of Engineering - Center of Environmental and Research Technology (CE-CERT), University of California, Riverside, CA 92507, USA
| | - Yunqiao Pu
- Biosciences Division, Joint Institute for Biological Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
| | - Charles E Wyman
- Bourns College of Engineering - Center of Environmental and Research Technology (CE-CERT), University of California, Riverside, CA 92507, USA; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Bourns College of Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Charles M Cai
- Bourns College of Engineering - Center of Environmental and Research Technology (CE-CERT), University of California, Riverside, CA 92507, USA; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Bourns College of Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Arthur J Ragauskas
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; Biosciences Division, Joint Institute for Biological Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA; Department of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Knoxville, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
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18
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Sun W, Trevorah R, Othman MZ. Fractionation of spent liquor from organosolv-pretreatment using lignin-incompatible extraction. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 269:255-261. [PMID: 30189378 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.08.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
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Jiang Z, Zhao P, Hu C. Controlling the cleavage of the inter- and intra-molecular linkages in lignocellulosic biomass for further biorefining: A review. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 256:466-477. [PMID: 29478782 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The abundant intermolecular linkages among cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin significantly limit the utilization of the most promising renewable biomass. Process control with solvents, catalysts and temperature is of significant importance providing ways to break the above linkages, and benefiting to the further conversion of the main biomass components to small molecular products. This article discusses the effect of catalyst under hydrothermal and organosolv treatment emphasizing the cleavage of the intermolecular linkage. Acidic catalysts show good performance on cleaving the linkages between carbohydrates and lignin. Basic catalysts promoted the dissolution of lignin component. Hydrogenolysis assisted conversion of lignin can efficiently break the intermolecular linkages to yield lignin-derived bio-oil, especially in co-solvent reaction system. Besides, the effects of single solvent and co-solvent systems, as well as the cleavage of the intramolecular linkages to yield target chemicals are also included. Several further study strategies are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhicheng Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Pingping Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Changwei Hu
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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20
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Trevorah RM, Huynh T, Vancov T, Othman MZ. Bioethanol potential of Eucalyptus obliqua sawdust using gamma-valerolactone fractionation. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 250:673-682. [PMID: 29220812 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.11.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Optimisation of conditions for gamma-valerolactone (GVL) pretreatment of Australian eucalyptus sawdust for high cellulose biomass and bioethanol production was demonstrated. Pretreatment parameters investigated included GVL concentrations of 35-50% w/w, temperatures of 120-180 °C and reaction durations of 0.5-2.0 h. Optimum conditions were determined using the response surface method (RSM) and central composite face-centred design. Cellulose content increased from 39.9% to a maximum of 89.3% w/w using treatments with 50% GVL at 156 °C for 0.5 h. Temperature had the most significant effect (RSM p < .05) on cellulose content of residual biomass and reducing operational duration of < 0.5 h may be viable according to RSM. PSSF fermentations of optimised pretreated eucalyptus sawdust produced up to 94% theoretical ethanol yield, which corresponded to approximately 181 kg of ethanol per dry ton of eucalyptus sawdust. The compositions of both the residual biomass and pretreatment liquors show that GVL pretreatment is a promising solvent for lignocellulosic biorefining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond M Trevorah
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Swanston Street 3000, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Tien Huynh
- School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora 3083, Australia
| | - Tony Vancov
- NSW Department of Primary Industry, Wollongbar 2477, Australia
| | - Maazuza Z Othman
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Swanston Street 3000, Melbourne, Australia
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21
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Smith MD, Cheng X, Petridis L, Mostofian B, Smith JC. Organosolv-Water Cosolvent Phase Separation on Cellulose and its Influence on the Physical Deconstruction of Cellulose: A Molecular Dynamics Analysis. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14494. [PMID: 29101352 PMCID: PMC5670135 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15048-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Deconstruction of cellulose is crucial for the chemical conversion of lignocellulose into fuel/bioproduct precursors. Recently, a water-organosolv cosolvent system (THF-water) has been shown to both phase-separate on cellulose surfaces and partially deconstruct Avicel (cellulose) in the absence of acid. Here we employ molecular dynamics simulations to determine whether other common water-organosolv cosolvent systems (acetone, ethanol, and γ-valerolactone) exhibit phase separation at cellulose surface and whether this alters a purely physical cellulose dissociation pathway. Despite finding varied degrees of phase-separation of organosolv on cellulose surfaces, physical dissociation is not enhanced. Interestingly, however, the total amount the median water-cellulose contact lifetimes increases for the cosolvent systems in the order of THF > acetone > ethanol > γ-valerolactone. Together our results indicate two points: a purely physical process for deconstruction of cellulose is unlikely for these cosolvents, and in THF-water, unlike γ-valerolactone- (and some concentrations of acetone and ethanol) water cosolvents, a significant fraction of surface water is slowed. This slowing may be of importance in enhancing chemical deconstruction of cellulose, as it permits an increase in potential THF-water-cellulose reactions, even while the amount of water near cellulose is decreased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micholas Dean Smith
- Center for Molecular Biophysics, University of Tennessee/Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Xiaolin Cheng
- Center for Molecular Biophysics, University of Tennessee/Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA.,Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | - Loukas Petridis
- Center for Molecular Biophysics, University of Tennessee/Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA.,Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
| | - Barmak Mostofian
- Center for Molecular Biophysics, University of Tennessee/Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Jeremy C Smith
- Center for Molecular Biophysics, University of Tennessee/Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA. .,Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA. .,Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA.
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