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Martín C, Zervakis GI, Xiong S, Koutrotsios G, Strætkvern KO. Spent substrate from mushroom cultivation: exploitation potential toward various applications and value-added products. Bioengineered 2023; 14:2252138. [PMID: 37670430 PMCID: PMC10484051 DOI: 10.1080/21655979.2023.2252138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is the residual biomass generated after harvesting the fruitbodies of edible/medicinal fungi. Disposal of SMS, the main by-product of the mushroom cultivation process, often leads to serious environmental problems and is financially demanding. Efficient recycling and valorization of SMS are crucial for the sustainable development of the mushroom industry in the frame of the circular economy principles. The physical properties and chemical composition of SMS are a solid fundament for developing several applications, and recent literature shows an increasing research interest in exploiting that inherent potential. This review provides a thorough outlook on SMS exploitation possibilities and discusses critically recent findings related to specific applications in plant and mushroom cultivation, animal husbandry, and recovery of enzymes and bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Martín
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Hamar, Norway
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Shaojun Xiong
- Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Knut Olav Strætkvern
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Hamar, Norway
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Klausen SJ, Falck-Ytter AB, Strætkvern KO, Martin C. Evaluation of the Extraction of Bioactive Compounds and the Saccharification of Cellulose as a Route for the Valorization of Spent Mushroom Substrate. Molecules 2023; 28:5140. [PMID: 37446802 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28135140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The extraction of bioactive compounds and cellulose saccharification are potential directions for the valorization of spent mushroom substrate (SMS). Therefore, investigating the suitability of different extraction methods for recovering bioactive compounds from SMS and how the extraction affects the enzymatic saccharification is of uppermost relevance. In this work, bioactive compounds were extracted from Pleurotus spp. SMS using four extraction methods. For Soxhlet extraction (SoE), a 40:60 ethanol/water mixture gave the highest extraction efficiency (EE) (69.9-71.1%) among the seven solvent systems assayed. Reflux extraction with 40:60 ethanol/water increased the extraction yield and EE compared to SoE. A shorter reflux time yielded a higher extraction of carbohydrates than SoE, while a longer time was more effective for extracting phenolics. The extracts from 240 min of reflux had comparable antioxidant activity (0.3-0.5 mM GAE) with that achieved for SoE. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) at 65 °C for 60 min allowed an EE (~82%) higher than that achieved by either reflux for up to 150 min or SoE. Subcritical water extraction (SWE) at 150 °C resulted in the best extraction parameters among all the tested methods. Vanillic acid and chlorogenic acid were the primary phenolic acids identified in the extracts. A good correlation between the concentration of caffeic acid and the antioxidant activity of the extracts was found. Saccharification tests revealed an enhancement of the enzymatic digestibility of SMS cellulose after the extraction of bioactive compounds. The findings of this initial study provide indications on new research directions for maximizing the recovery of bioactive compounds and fermentable sugars from SMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Klausen
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, N-2317 Hamar, Norway
| | | | - Knut Olav Strætkvern
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, N-2317 Hamar, Norway
| | - Carlos Martin
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, N-2317 Hamar, Norway
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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Vasilakis G, Rigos EM, Giannakis N, Diamantopoulou P, Papanikolaou S. Spent Mushroom Substrate Hydrolysis and Utilization as Potential Alternative Feedstock for Anaerobic Co-Digestion. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020532. [PMID: 36838496 PMCID: PMC9964826 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Valorization of lignocellulosic biomass, such as Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS), as an alternative substrate for biogas production could meet the increasing demand for energy. In view of this, the present study aimed at the biotechnological valorization of SMS for biogas production. In the first part of the study, two SMS chemical pretreatment processes were investigated and subsequently combined with thermal treatment of the mentioned waste streams. The acidic chemical hydrolysate derived from the hydrothermal treatment, which yielded in the highest concentration of free sugars (≈36 g/100 g dry SMS, hydrolysis yield ≈75% w/w of holocellulose), was used as a potential feedstock for biomethane production in a laboratory bench-scale improvised digester, and 52 L biogas/kg of volatile solids (VS) containing 65% methane were produced in a 15-day trial of anaerobic digestion. As regards the alkaline hydrolysate, it was like a pulp due to the lignocellulosic matrix disruption, without releasing additional sugars, and the biogas production was delayed for several days. The biogas yield value was 37 L/kg VS, and the methane content was 62%. Based on these results, it can be concluded that SMS can be valorized as an alternative medium employed for anaerobic digestion when pretreated with both chemical and hydrothermal hydrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Vasilakis
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Biotechnology, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
| | - Evangelos-Markos Rigos
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Biotechnology, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikos Giannakis
- Laboratory of Food Process Engineering, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
| | - Panagiota Diamantopoulou
- Institute of Technology of Agricultural Products, Hellenic Agricultural Organization “Dimitra”, 1 Sofokli Venizelou Str., 14123 Lykovryssi, Greece
| | - Seraphim Papanikolaou
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Biotechnology, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
- Correspondence:
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Grimm A, Chen F, Simões dos Reis G, Dinh VM, Khokarale SG, Finell M, Mikkola JP, Hultberg M, Dotto GL, Xiong S. Cellulose Fiber Rejects as Raw Material for Integrated Production of Pleurotus spp. Mushrooms and Activated Biochar for Removal of Emerging Pollutants from Aqueous Media. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:5361-5376. [PMID: 36816655 PMCID: PMC9933083 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose fiber rejects from industrial-scale recycling of waste papers were dried and de-ashed using a combined cyclone-drying and sieving process. The upgraded fiber reject was used as a component of substrates for the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus eryngii mushrooms. Acetic acid (AA) and acid whey (AW) were used to adjust the pH of fiber reject-based substrates. Spent substrate (SMS) was used for the production of activated biochar using H3PO4 and KOH as activating agents and pyrolysis temperatures of 500, 600, and 700 °C. The effectiveness of the biochars in removing pollutants from water was determined using acetaminophen and amoxicillin. By using a feeding rate of 250 kg/h and a drying air temperature of 70 °C, the moisture content of the raw fiber rejects (57.8 wt %) was reduced to 5.4 wt %, and the ash content (39.2 wt %) was reduced to 21.5 wt %. Substrates with 60 and 80 wt % de-ashed cellulose fiber were colonized faster than a birch wood-based control substrate. The adjustment of the pH of these two substrates to approximately 6.5 by using AA led to longer colonization times but biological efficiencies (BEs) that were higher or comparable to that of the control substrate. The contents of ash, crude fiber, crude fat, and crude protein of fruit bodies grown on fiber reject-based substrates were comparable to that of those grown on control substrates, and the contents of toxic heavy metals, that is, As, Pb, Cd, and Hg, were well below the up-limit values for food products set in EC regulations. Activated biochar produced from fiber reject-based SMS at a temperature of 700 °C resulted in a surface area (BET) of 396 m2/g (H3PO4-activated biochar) and 199 m2/g (KOH-activated biochar). For both activated biochars, the kinetics of adsorption of acetaminophen and amoxicillin were better described using the general order model. The isotherms of adsorption were better described by the Freundlich model (H3PO4-activated biochar) and the Langmuir model (KOH-activated biochar).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Grimm
- Department
of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, UmeåSE-901 83, Sweden
| | - Feng Chen
- Department
of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, UmeåSE-901 83, Sweden
| | - Glaydson Simões dos Reis
- Department
of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, UmeåSE-901 83, Sweden
| | - Van Minh Dinh
- Technical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Chemical-Biological Centre, Umeå University, UmeåSE-901 87, Sweden
| | - Santosh Govind Khokarale
- Technical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Chemical-Biological Centre, Umeå University, UmeåSE-901 87, Sweden
| | - Michael Finell
- Department
of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, UmeåSE-901 83, Sweden
| | - Jyri-Pekka Mikkola
- Technical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Chemical-Biological Centre, Umeå University, UmeåSE-901 87, Sweden
- Industrial
Chemistry and Reaction Engineering, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry
Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Åbo-TurkuFI-20500, Finland
| | - Malin Hultberg
- Department
of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University
of Agricultural Sciences, AlnarpSE-230 53, Sweden
| | - Guilherme L. Dotto
- Research
Group on Adsorptive and Catalytic Process Engineering (ENGEPAC), Federal University of Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000-7, RS,
Santa MariaBR 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Shaojun Xiong
- Department
of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, UmeåSE-901 83, Sweden
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A Comparative Photographic Review on Higher Plants and Macro-Fungi: A Soil Restoration for Sustainable Production of Food and Energy. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14127104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The Kingdom of Plantae is considered the main source of human food, and includes several edible and medicinal plants, whereas mushrooms belong to the Kingdom of fungi. There are a lot of similar characteristics between mushrooms and higher plants, but there are also many differences among them, especially from the human health point of view. The absences of both chlorophyll content and the ability to form their own food are the main differences between mushrooms and higher plants. The main similar attributes found in both mushrooms and higher plants are represented in their nutritional and medicinal activities. The findings of this review have a number of practical implications. A lot of applications in different fields could be found also for both mushrooms and higher plants, especially in the bioenergy, biorefinery, soil restoration, and pharmaceutical fields, but this study is the first report on a comparative photographic review between them. An implication of the most important findings in this review is that both mushrooms and plants should be taken into account when integrated food and energy are needed. These findings will be of broad use to the scientific and biomedical communities. Further investigation and experimentation into the integration and production of food crops and mushrooms are strongly recommended under different environmental conditions, particularly climate change.
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