1
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Wang J, Singer SD, Chen G. Biotechnological advances in the production of unusual fatty acids in transgenic plants and recombinant microorganisms. Biotechnol Adv 2024; 76:108435. [PMID: 39214484 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2024.108435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 07/28/2024] [Accepted: 08/25/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Certain plants and microorganisms can produce high amounts of unusual fatty acids (UFAs) such as hydroxy, conjugated, cyclic, and very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have distinct physicochemical properties and significant applications in the food, feed, and oleochemical industries. Since many natural sources of UFAs are not ideal for large-scale agricultural production or fermentation, it is attractive to produce them through synthetic biology. Although several UFAs have been commercially or pre-commercially produced in transgenic plants and microorganisms, their contents in transgenic hosts are generally much lower than in natural sources. Moreover, reproducing this success for a wider spectrum of UFAs has remained challenging. This review discusses recent advancements in our understanding of the biosynthesis, accumulation, and heterologous production of UFAs, and addresses the challenges and potential strategies for achieving high UFA content in engineered plants and microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juli Wang
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, 116 St and 85 Ave, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Stacy D Singer
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Lethbridge, Alberta T1J 4B1, Canada
| | - Guanqun Chen
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, 116 St and 85 Ave, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada.
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2
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Duan Y, Chen L, Ma L, Amin FR, Zhai Y, Chen G, Li D. From lignocellulosic biomass to single cell oil for sustainable biomanufacturing: Current advances and prospects. Biotechnol Adv 2024:108460. [PMID: 39383979 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2024.108460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 09/12/2024] [Accepted: 09/29/2024] [Indexed: 10/11/2024]
Abstract
As global temperatures rise and arid climates intensify, the reserves of Earth's resources and the future development of humankind are under unprecedented pressure. Traditional methods of food production are increasingly inadequate in meeting the demands of human life while remaining environmentally sustainable and resource-efficient. Consequently, the sustainable supply of lipids is expected to become a pivotal area for future food development. Lignocellulose biomass (LB), as the most abundant and cost-effective renewable resource, has garnered significant attention from researchers worldwide. Thus, bioprocessing based on LB is appearing as a sustainable model for mitigating the depletion of energy reserves and reducing carbon footprints. Currently, the transformation of LB primarily focuses on producing biofuels, such as bioethanol, biobutanol, and biodiesel, to address the energy crisis. However, there are limited reports on the production of single-cell oil (SCO) from LB. This review, therefore, provides a comprehensive summary of the research progress in lignocellulosic pretreatment. Subsequently, it describes how the capability for lignocellulosic use can be conferred to cells through genetic engineering. Additionally, the current status of saccharification and fermentation of LB is outlined. The article also highlights the advances in synthetic biology aimed at driving the development of oil-producing microorganism (OPM), including genetic transformation, chassis modification, and metabolic pathway optimization. Finally, the limitations currently faced in SCO production from straw are discussed, and future directions for achieving high SCO yields from various perspectives are proposed. This review aims to provide a valuable reference for the industrial application of green SCO production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Duan
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology (Weihai), Weihai 264209, PR China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological System and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Limei Chen
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological System and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Longxue Ma
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological System and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Farrukh Raza Amin
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological System and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Yida Zhai
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology (Weihai), Weihai 264209, PR China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological System and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Guofu Chen
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology (Weihai), Weihai 264209, PR China.
| | - Demao Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory for Industrial Biological System and Bioprocessing Engineering, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin 300308, China.
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3
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Wang K, Yin M, Sun ML, Zhao Q, Ledesma-Amaro R, Ji XJ, Lin L. Engineering Yarrowia lipolytica for Efficient Synthesis of Geranylgeraniol. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:20568-20581. [PMID: 39241196 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c06749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/08/2024]
Abstract
Geranylgeraniol (GGOH) is a crucial component in fragrances and essential oils, and a valuable precursor of vitamin E. It is primarily extracted from the oleoresin of Bixa orellana, but is challenged by long plant growth cycles, severe environmental pollution, and low extraction efficiency. Chemically synthesized GGOH typically comprises a mix of isomers, making the separation process both challenging and costly. Advancements in synthetic biology have enabled the construction of microbial cell factories for GGOH production. In this study, Yarrowia lipolytica was engineered to efficiently synthesize GGOH by expressing heterologous phosphatase genes, enhancing precursor supplies of farnesyl diphosphate, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, and acetyl-CoA, and downregulating the squalene synthesis pathway by promoter engineering. Additionally, optimizing fermentation conditions and reducing reactive oxygen species significantly increased the GGOH titer to 3346.47 mg/L in a shake flask. To the best of our knowledge, this is the highest reported GGOH titer in shaking flasks to date, setting a new benchmark for terpenoid production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaifeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingxue Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei-Li Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Quanyu Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Rodrigo Ledesma-Amaro
- Department of Bioengineering and Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
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Sha Y, Ge M, Lu M, Xu Z, Zhai R, Jin M. Advances in metabolic engineering for enhanced acetyl-CoA availability in yeast. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2024:1-19. [PMID: 39266266 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2024.2399542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024]
Abstract
Acetyl-CoA is an intermediate metabolite in cellular central metabolism. It's a precursor for various valuable commercial products, including: terpenoids, fatty acids, and polyketides. With the advancement of metabolic and synthetic biology tools, microbial cell factories have been constructed for the efficient synthesis of acetyl-CoA and derivatives, with the Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Yarrowia lipolytica as two prominent chassis. This review summarized the recent developments in the biosynthetic pathways and metabolic engineering approaches for acetyl-CoA and its derivatives synthesis in these two yeasts. First, the metabolic routes involved in the biosynthesis of acetyl-CoA and derived products were outlined. Then, the advancements in metabolic engineering strategies for channeling acetyl-CoA toward the desired products were summarized, with particular emphasis on: enhancing metabolic flux in different organelles, refining precursor CoA synthesis, optimizing substrate utilization, and modifying protein acetylation level. Finally, future developments in advancing the metabolic engineering strategies for acetyl-CoA and related derivatives synthesis, including: reducing CO2 emissions, dynamically regulating metabolic pathways, and exploring the regulatory functions between acetyl-CoA levels and protein acetylation, are highlighted. This review provided new insights into regulating acetyl-CoA synthesis to create more effective microbial cell factories for bio-manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Sha
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Biorefinery Research Institution, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Mianshen Ge
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Biorefinery Research Institution, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Minrui Lu
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Biorefinery Research Institution, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhaoxian Xu
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Biorefinery Research Institution, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Rui Zhai
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Biorefinery Research Institution, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Mingjie Jin
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
- Biorefinery Research Institution, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
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5
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Tang YX, Huang W, Wang YH, Chen H, Lu XY, Tian Y, Ji XJ, Liu HH. Engineering Yarrowia lipolytica for sustainable Cis-13, 16-docosadienoic acid production. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2024; 406:130978. [PMID: 38879057 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2024.130978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/19/2024]
Abstract
Cis-13, 16-docosadienoic acid (DDA) is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid with great potential for application in medicine and health. Using microbial cell factories for DDA production is considered a viable alternative to extracting DDA from plant seeds. In this study, using Yarrowia lipolytica Po1f (Δku70) as a chassis, firstly, the adaptation of three elongases in Po1f (Δku70) were explored. Secondly, the DDA biosynthetic pathway was redesigned, resulting in a DDA content of 0.046 % of total fatty acids (TFAs). Thirdly, through the "push-pull" strategy, the DDA content increased to 0.078 % of TFAs. By enhancing the supply of acetyl-CoA, the DDA production in the engineered strain YL-7 reached 0.391 % of the TFAs (3.19 mg/L). Through optimizing the fermentation conditions, the DDA titer of YL-7 reached 29.34 mg/L. This research achieves the sustainable biological production of DDA in Y. lipolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Xiong Tang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Wei Huang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Yu-Hui Wang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Hong Chen
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Xiang-Yang Lu
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Yun Tian
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China; State Key Laboratory of Utilization of Woody Oil Resource, Hunan Academy of Forestry, Changsha, Hunan 410004, China
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211816, China
| | - Hu-Hu Liu
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China.
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6
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Fang L, Chen Y, He Q, Wang L, Duan Q, Huang C, Song H, Cao Y. Mining novel gene targets for improving tolerance to furfural and acetic acid in Yarrowia lipolytica using whole-genome CRISPRi library. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2024; 403:130764. [PMID: 38718903 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2024.130764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Abundant renewable resource lignocellulosic biomass possesses tremendous potential for green biomanufacturing, while its efficient utilization by Yarrowia lipolytica, an attractive biochemical production host, is restricted since the presence of inhibitors furfural and acetic acid in lignocellulosic hydrolysate. Given deficient understanding of inherent interactions between inhibitors and cellular metabolism, sufficiently mining relevant genes is necessary. Herein, 14 novel gene targets were discovered using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats interference library in Y. lipolytica, achieving tolerance to 0.35 % (v/v) acetic acid (the highest concentration reported in Y. lipolytica), 4.8 mM furfural, or a combination of 2.4 mM furfural and 0.15 % (v/v) acetic acid. The tolerance mechanism might involve improvement of cell division and decrease of reactive oxygen species level. Transcriptional repression of effective gene targets still enabled tolerance when xylose was a carbon source. This work forms a robust foundation for improving microbial tolerance to lignocellulose-derived inhibitors and revealing underlying mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixia Fang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Yaru Chen
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Qianxi He
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Luxin Wang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Qiyang Duan
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Congcong Huang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Hao Song
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Yingxiu Cao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering, and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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7
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Du F, Li Z, Li X, Zhang D, Zhang F, Zhang Z, Xu Y, Tang J, Li Y, Huang X, Gu Y, Sun X, Huang H. Optimizing multicopy chromosomal integration for stable high-performing strains. Nat Chem Biol 2024:10.1038/s41589-024-01650-0. [PMID: 38858530 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-024-01650-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
The copy number of genes in chromosomes can be modified by chromosomal integration to construct efficient microbial cell factories but the resulting genetic systems are prone to failure or instability from triggering homologous recombination in repetitive DNA sequences. Finding the optimal copy number of each gene in a pathway is also time and labor intensive. To overcome these challenges, we applied a multiple nonrepetitive coding sequence calculator that generates sets of coding DNA sequence (CDS) variants. A machine learning method was developed to calculate the optimal copy number combination of genes in a pathway. We obtained an engineered Yarrowia lipolytica strain for eicosapentaenoic acid biosynthesis in 6 months, producing the highest titer of 27.5 g l-1 in a 50-liter bioreactor. Moreover, the lycopene production in Escherichia coli was also greatly improved. Importantly, all engineered strains of Y. lipolytica, E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae constructed with nonrepetitive CDSs maintained genetic stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Du
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zijia Li
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xin Li
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Duoduo Zhang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zixu Zhang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yingshuang Xu
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jin Tang
- Research Institute of Intelligent Computing, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yongqian Li
- Research Institute of Intelligent Computing, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xingxu Huang
- Research Institute of Intelligent Computing, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Gu
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoman Sun
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China.
| | - He Huang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China.
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8
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Jiang D, Yang M, Chen K, Jiang W, Zhang L, Ji XJ, Jiang J, Lu L. Exploiting synthetic biology platforms for enhanced biosynthesis of natural products in Yarrowia lipolytica. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2024; 399:130614. [PMID: 38513925 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2024.130614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
With the rapid development of synthetic biology, researchers can design, modify, or even synthesize microorganisms de novo, and microorganisms endowed with unnatural functions can be considered "artificial life" and facilitate the development of functional products. Based on this concept, researchers can solve critical problems related to the insufficient supply of natural products, such as low yields, long production cycles, and cumbersome procedures. Due to its superior performance and unique physiological and biochemical characteristics, Yarrowia lipolytica is a favorable chassis cell used for green biomanufacturing by numerous researchers. This paper mainly reviews the development of synthetic biology techniques for Y. lipolytica and summarizes the recent research progress on the synthesis of natural products in Y. lipolytica. This review will promote the continued innovative development of Y. lipolytica by providing theoretical guidance for research on the biosynthesis of natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahai Jiang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China
| | - Manqi Yang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Chen
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenxuan Jiang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China
| | - Liangliang Zhang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianchun Jiang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, CAF, Nanjing 210042, People's Republic of China
| | - Liming Lu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Academy of Advanced Carbon Conversion Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Biomass Low-Carbon Conversion, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, People's Republic of China.
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Lin L, Ledesma-Amaro R, Ji XJ, Huang H. Harnessing oleaginous yeast to produce omega fatty acids. Trends Biotechnol 2024:S0167-7799(24)00084-2. [PMID: 38594144 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2024.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Omega fatty acids are important for human health. They are traditionally extracted from animals or plants but can be alternatively produced using oleaginous yeast. Current efforts are producing yeast strains with similar fatty acid distributions and powerful lipogenesis capacity. The next step is to further make the process more competitive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, PRC
| | - Rodrigo Ledesma-Amaro
- Department of Bioengineering and Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, PRC.
| | - He Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, PRC; School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, 2 Xuelin Road, Nanjing 210023, PRC.
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10
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Wang K, Zhou Y, Cao L, Lin L, Ledesma-Amaro R, Ji XJ. Engineering Yarrowia lipolytica for Sustainable Production of the Pomegranate Seed Oil-Derived Punicic Acid. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:3088-3098. [PMID: 38282297 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c08718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Punicic acid is a conjugated linolenic acid with various biological activities including antiobesity, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. It is often used as a nutraceutical, dietary additive, and animal feed. Currently, punicic acid is primarily extracted from pomegranate seed oil, but it is restricted due to the extended growth cycle, climatic limitations, and low recovery level. There have also been reports on the chemical synthesis of punicic acid, but it resulted in a mixture of structurally similar isomers, requiring additional purification/separation steps. In this study, a comprehensive strategy for the production of punicic acid in Yarrowia lipolytica was implemented by pushing the supply of linoleic acid precursors in a high-oleic oil strain, expressing multiple copies of the fatty acid conjugase gene from Punica granatum, engineering the acyl-editing pathway to improve the phosphatidylcholine pool, and promoting the assembly of punicic acid in the form of triglycerides. The optimal strain with high oil production capacity and a significantly increased punicic acid ratio accumulated 3072.72 mg/L punicic acid, accounting for 6.19% of total fatty acids in fed-batch fermentation, providing a viable, sustainable, and green approach for punicic acid production to substitute plant extraction and chemical synthesis production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaifeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Yueyue Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Lizhen Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Rodrigo Ledesma-Amaro
- Department of Bioengineering and Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
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11
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Sun ML, Gao X, Lin L, Yang J, Ledesma-Amaro R, Ji XJ. Building Yarrowia lipolytica Cell Factories for Advanced Biomanufacturing: Challenges and Solutions. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:94-107. [PMID: 38126236 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c07889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Microbial cell factories have shown great potential for industrial production with the benefit of being environmentally friendly and sustainable. Yarrowia lipolytica is a promising and superior non-model host for biomanufacturing due to its cumulated advantages compared to model microorganisms, such as high fluxes of metabolic precursors (acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA) and its naturally hydrophobic microenvironment. However, although diverse compounds have been synthesized in Y. lipolytica cell factories, most of the relevant studies have not reached the level of industrialization and commercialization due to a number of remaining challenges, including unbalanced metabolic flux, conflict between cell growth and product synthesis, and cytotoxic effects. Here, various metabolic engineering strategies for solving the challenges are summarized, which is developing fast and extremely conducive to rational design and reconstruction of robust Y. lipolytica cell factories for advanced biomanufacturing. Finally, future engineering efforts for enhancing the production efficiency of this platform strain are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Li Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxia Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Yang
- 2011 College, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Rodrigo Ledesma-Amaro
- Department of Bioengineering and Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
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Yang X, Lin S, Chen Y, Chen W, Lan D, Wang Y. Efficient Enzymatic Enrichment of High-purity Nervonic Acid from Malania oleifera Seed Oil. J Oleo Sci 2024; 73:99-111. [PMID: 38171735 DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess23170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Nervonic acid (NA) is a monounsaturated fatty acid vital for brain health and is of emerging importance in various industrial applications, including therapeutics, food, and cosmetics. Given the growing demands of the food and pharmaceutical industries, there's a pressing need for high-purity NA. Previously, NA constituents in plant seed oils were chemically transformed into nervonic acid ethyl ester (NAEE) to facilitate extraction from seed oils. In this study, we present an enzymatic approach to convert NA constituents in Malania oleifera seed oil to NAEE. Combined with the utilization of the semi-preparative chromatography, we achieved a remarkable purity of 97.52% NAEE. Compared to conventional chemical preparations characterized by multiple steps, prolonged processing times, and low yields and purities, our enzymatic method stands out as a more efficient and advantageous alternative. On top of that, this innovative approach is environmentally friendly and circumvents health and safety issues associated with chemical processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ximei Yang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Sen Lin
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Ying Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Wen Chen
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Dongming Lan
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
| | - Yonghua Wang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology
- Guangdong Youmei Institute of Intelligent Bio-manufacturing Co., Ltd
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Liu F, Lu Z, Lu T, Shi M, Wang H, Wu R, Cao J, Su E, Ma X. Metabolic engineering of oleaginous yeast in the lipogenic phase enhances production of nervonic acid. Metab Eng 2023; 80:193-206. [PMID: 37827446 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2023.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Insufficient biosynthesis efficiency during the lipogenic phase can be a major obstacle to engineering oleaginous yeasts to overproduce very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs). Taking nervonic acid (NA, C24:1) as an example, we overcame the bottleneck to overproduce NA in an engineered Rhodosporidium toruloides by improving the biosynthesis of VLCFAs during the lipogenic phase. First, evaluating the catalytic preferences of three plant-derived ketoacyl-CoA synthases (KCSs) rationally guided reconstructing an efficient NA biosynthetic pathway in R. toruloides. More importantly, a genome-wide transcriptional analysis endowed clues to strengthen the fatty acid elongation (FAE) module and identify/use lipogenic phase-activated promoter, collectively addressing the stagnation of NA accumulation during the lipogenic phase. The best-designed strain exhibited a high NA content (as the major component in total fatty acid [TFA], 46.3%) and produced a titer of 44.2 g/L in a 5 L bioreactor. The strategy developed here provides an engineering framework to establish the microbial process of producing valuable VLCFAs in oleaginous yeasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feixiang Liu
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China; Department of Biological Science and Food Engineering, Bozhou University, Bozhou, 236800, China
| | - Zewei Lu
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Tingting Lu
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Manman Shi
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Huimin Wang
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Rong Wu
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Jun Cao
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China
| | - Erzheng Su
- Co-innovation Center for the Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
| | - Xiaoqiang Ma
- Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China.
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Zhao XR, Chen XL, Yang JL, Gao Q, Shi JT, Hua Q, Wei LJ. De novo synthesis of nervonic acid and optimization of metabolic regulation by Yarrowia lipolytica. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2023; 10:70. [PMID: 38647797 PMCID: PMC10992393 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-023-00689-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Nervonic acid, a natural fatty acid compound and also a core component of nerve fibers and nerve cells, has been widely used to prevent and treat related diseases of the brain nervous system. At present, fatty acids and their derivatives are mainly obtained by natural extraction or chemical synthesis which are limited by natural resources and production costs. In this study, the de novo synthetic pathway of nervonic acid was constructed in Yarrowia lipolytica by means of synthetic biology, and the yield of nervonic acid was further improved by metabolic engineering and fermentation optimization. Specially, heterologous elongases and desaturases derived from different organism were successfully expressed and evaluated for their potential for the production of nervonic acid in Y. lipolytica. Meanwhile, we overexpressed the genes involved in the lipid metabolism to increase the nervonic acid titer to 111.6 mg/L. In addition, the potential of adding oil as auxiliary carbon sources for nervonic acid production by the engineered Y. lipolytica was analyzed. The results indicated that supplementation with colleseed oil as an auxiliary carbon source can be beneficial for the nervonic acid productivity, which led to the highest concentration of 185.0 mg/L in this work. To summarize, this study describes that the Y. lipolytica can be used as a promising platform for the production of nervonic acid and other very long-chain fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Ru Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin-Liang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing-Lin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiang-Ting Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Hua
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China.
- Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Liu-Jing Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, People's Republic of China.
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Wang J, Yu X, Wang K, Lin L, Liu HH, Ledesma-Amaro R, Ji XJ. Reprogramming the fatty acid metabolism of Yarrowia lipolytica to produce the customized omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2023; 383:129231. [PMID: 37244310 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2023.129231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω6-PUFAs), such as γ-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) and arachidonic acid (ARA), are indispensable nutrients for human health. Harnessing the lipogenesis pathway of Yarrowia lipolytica creates a potential platform for producing customized ω6-PUFAs. This study explored the optimal biosynthetic pathways for customized production of ω6-PUFAs in Y. lipolytica via either the Δ6 pathway from Mortierella alpina or the Δ8 pathway from Isochrysis galbana. Subsequently, the proportion of ω6-PUFAs in total fatty acids (TFAs) was effectively increased by bolstering the provision of precursors for fatty acid biosynthesis and carriers for fatty acid desaturation, as well as preventing fatty acid degradation. Finally, the proportions of GLA, DGLA and ARA synthesized by customized strains accounted for 22.58%, 46.65% and 11.30% of TFAs, and the corresponding titers reached 386.59, 832.00 and 191.76 mg/L in shake-flask fermentation, respectively. This work provides valuable insights into the production of functional ω6-PUFAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinpeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Kaifeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China
| | - Hu-Hu Liu
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1 Nongda Road, Changsha 410128, People's Republic of China
| | - Rodrigo Ledesma-Amaro
- Department of Bioengineering and Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Xiao-Jun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing 211816, People's Republic of China.
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Bi H, Xu C, Bao Y, Zhang C, Wang K, Zhang Y, Wang M, Chen B, Fang Y, Tan T. Enhancing precursor supply and modulating metabolism to achieve high-level production of β-farnesene in Yarrowia lipolytica. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2023; 382:129171. [PMID: 37196740 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2023.129171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
β-Farnesene is a sesquiterpene commonly found in essential oils of plants, with applications spanning from agricultural pest control and biofuels to industrial chemicals. The use of renewable substrates in microbial cell factories offers a sustainable approach to β-farnesene biosynthesis. In this study, malic enzyme from Mucor circinelloides was examined for NADPH regeneration, concomitant with the augmentation of cytosolic acetyl-CoA supply by expressing ATP-citrate lyase from Mus musculus and manipulating the citrate pathway via AMP deaminase and isocitrate dehydrogenase. Carbon flux was modulated through the elimination of native 6-phosphofructokinase, while the incorporation of an exogenous non-oxidative glycolysis pathway served to bridge the pentose phosphate pathway with the mevalonate pathway. The resulting orthogonal precursor supply pathway facilitated β-farnesene production, reaching 810 mg/L in shake-flask fermentation. Employing optimal fermentation conditions and feeding strategy, a titer of 28.9 g/L of β-farnesene was attained in a 2 L bioreactor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Bi
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Chenchen Xu
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Yufei Bao
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Changwei Zhang
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Kai Wang
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Yang Zhang
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Meng Wang
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China.
| | - Biqiang Chen
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Yunming Fang
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China
| | - Tianwei Tan
- National Energy R&D Center of Biorefinery, College of Life Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P.R. China.
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