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Zhou X, Liu X, Zhao H, Guo G, Jiang X, Liu S, Sun X, Yang H. Research advances in microfluidic collection and detection of virus, bacterial, and fungal bioaerosols. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:132. [PMID: 38351367 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-024-06213-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Bioaerosols are airborne suspensions of fine solid or liquid particles containing biological substances such as viruses, bacteria, cellular debris, fungal spores, mycelium, and byproducts of microbial metabolism. The global Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the previous emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and influenza have increased the need for reliable and effective monitoring tools for bioaerosols. Bioaerosol collection and detection have aroused considerable attention. Current bioaerosol sampling and detection techniques suffer from long response time, low sensitivity, and high costs, and these drawbacks have forced the development of novel monitoring strategies. Microfluidic technique is considered a breakthrough for high performance analysis of bioaerosols. In recent years, several emerging methods based on microfluidics have been developed and reported for collection and detection of bioaerosols. The unique advantages of microfluidic technique have enabled the integration of bioaerosol collection and detection, which has a higher efficiency over conventional methods. This review focused on the research progress of bioaerosol collection and detection methods based on microfluidic techniques, with special attention on virus aerosols and bacterial aerosols. Different from the existing reviews, this work took a unique perspective of the targets to be collected and detected in bioaerosols, which would provide a direct index of bioaerosol categories readers may be interested in. We also discussed integrated microfluidic monitoring system for bioaerosols. Additionally, the application of bioaerosol detection in biomedicine was presented. Finally, the current challenges in the field of bioaerosol monitoring are presented and an outlook given of future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyue Zhou
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Fourth Hospital of China Medical University, No. 4, Chongshan East Road, Huanggu District, Shenyang, 110032, Liaoning, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Fourth Hospital of China Medical University, No. 4, Chongshan East Road, Huanggu District, Shenyang, 110032, Liaoning, China
| | - Haiyang Zhao
- Teaching Center for Basic Medical Experiment, China Medical University, No.77, Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Guanqi Guo
- Teaching Center for Basic Medical Experiment, China Medical University, No.77, Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Xiran Jiang
- School of Intelligent Medicine, China Medical University, No.77, Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Shuo Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Fourth Hospital of China Medical University, No. 4, Chongshan East Road, Huanggu District, Shenyang, 110032, Liaoning, China.
| | - Xiaoting Sun
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, No.77, Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Huazhe Yang
- School of Intelligent Medicine, China Medical University, No.77, Puhe Road, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning Province, China.
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Asgari S, Wu G, Aghvami SA, Zhang Y, Lin M. Optimisation using the finite element method of a filter-based microfluidic SERS sensor for detection of multiple pesticides in strawberry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:646-658. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1881624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Asgari
- Food Science Program, Division of Food System & Bioengineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Guangfu Wu
- Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, USA
| | | | - Yi Zhang
- Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, Mansfield, CT, USA
| | - Mengshi Lin
- Food Science Program, Division of Food System & Bioengineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
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Christodoulides N, McRae MP, Simmons GW, Modak SS, McDevitt JT. Sensors that Learn: The Evolution from Taste Fingerprints to Patterns of Early Disease Detection. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:E251. [PMID: 30995728 PMCID: PMC6523560 DOI: 10.3390/mi10040251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The McDevitt group has sustained efforts to develop a programmable sensing platform that offers advanced, multiplexed/multiclass chem-/bio-detection capabilities. This scalable chip-based platform has been optimized to service real-world biological specimens and validated for analytical performance. Fashioned as a sensor that learns, the platform can host new content for the application at hand. Identification of biomarker-based fingerprints from complex mixtures has a direct linkage to e-nose and e-tongue research. Recently, we have moved to the point of big data acquisition alongside the linkage to machine learning and artificial intelligence. Here, exciting opportunities are afforded by multiparameter sensing that mimics the sense of taste, overcoming the limitations of salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and glutamate sensing and moving into fingerprints of health and wellness. This article summarizes developments related to the electronic taste chip system evolving into a platform that digitizes biology and affords clinical decision support tools. A dynamic body of literature and key review articles that have contributed to the shaping of these activities are also highlighted. This fully integrated sensor promises more rapid transition of biomarker panels into wide-spread clinical practice yielding valuable new insights into health diagnostics, benefiting early disease detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolaos Christodoulides
- Department of Biomaterials, College of Dentistry, Bioengineering Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10010, USA.
| | - Michael P McRae
- Department of Biomaterials, College of Dentistry, Bioengineering Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10010, USA.
| | - Glennon W Simmons
- Department of Biomaterials, College of Dentistry, Bioengineering Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10010, USA.
| | - Sayli S Modak
- Department of Biomaterials, College of Dentistry, Bioengineering Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10010, USA.
| | - John T McDevitt
- Department of Biomaterials, College of Dentistry, Bioengineering Institute, New York University, New York, NY 10010, USA.
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Gencturk E, Mutlu S, Ulgen KO. Advances in microfluidic devices made from thermoplastics used in cell biology and analyses. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2017; 11:051502. [PMID: 29152025 PMCID: PMC5654984 DOI: 10.1063/1.4998604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Silicon and glass were the main fabrication materials of microfluidic devices, however, plastics are on the rise in the past few years. Thermoplastic materials have recently been used to fabricate microfluidic platforms to perform experiments on cellular studies or environmental monitoring, with low cost disposable devices. This review describes the present state of the development and applications of microfluidic systems used in cell biology and analyses since the year 2000. Cultivation, separation/isolation, detection and analysis, and reaction studies are extensively discussed, considering only microorganisms (bacteria, yeast, fungi, zebra fish, etc.) and mammalian cell related studies in the microfluidic platforms. The advantages/disadvantages, fabrication methods, dimensions, and the purpose of creating the desired system are explained in detail. An important conclusion of this review is that these microfluidic platforms are still open for research and development, and solutions need to be found for each case separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Gencturk
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Biosystems Engineering Laboratory, Bogazici University, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Senol Mutlu
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, BUMEMS Laboratory, Bogazici University, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Kutlu O Ulgen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Biosystems Engineering Laboratory, Bogazici University, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey
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Christodoulides NJ, McRae MP, Abram TJ, Simmons GW, McDevitt JT. Innovative Programmable Bio-Nano-Chip Digitizes Biology Using Sensors That Learn Bridging Biomarker Discovery and Clinical Implementation. Front Public Health 2017; 5:110. [PMID: 28589118 PMCID: PMC5441161 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The lack of standard tools and methodologies and the absence of a streamlined multimarker approval process have hindered the translation rate of new biomarkers into clinical practice for a variety of diseases afflicting humankind. Advanced novel technologies with superior analytical performance and reduced reagent costs, like the programmable bio-nano-chip system featured in this article, have potential to change the delivery of healthcare. This universal platform system has the capacity to digitize biology, resulting in a sensor modality with a capacity to learn. With well-planned device design, development, and distribution plans, there is an opportunity to translate benchtop discoveries in the genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and glycomics fields by transforming the information content of key biomarkers into actionable signatures that can empower physicians and patients for a better management of healthcare. While the process is complicated and will take some time, showcased here are three application areas for this flexible platform that combines biomarker content with minimally invasive or non-invasive sampling, such as brush biopsy for oral cancer risk assessment; serum, plasma, and small volumes of blood for the assessment of cardiac risk and wellness; and oral fluid sampling for drugs of abuse testing at the point of need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolaos J. Christodoulides
- Department of Biomaterials, Bioengineering Institute, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, NY, USA
| | - Michael P. McRae
- Department of Biomaterials, Bioengineering Institute, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Glennon W. Simmons
- Department of Biomaterials, Bioengineering Institute, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, NY, USA
| | - John T. McDevitt
- Department of Biomaterials, Bioengineering Institute, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, NY, USA
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Tu J, Qiao Y, Feng H, Li J, Fu J, Liang F, Lu Z. PDMS-based microfluidic devices using commoditized PCBs as masters with no specialized equipment required. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra03899b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A simple, convenient and reliable approach used to prepare general polymer PDMS-based microfluidic devices with a minimal requirement for equipment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Yi Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Haiqing Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Junji Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Jiye Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Fupeng Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
| | - Zuhong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing
- China
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7
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Chen X, Shen J, Hu Z, Huo X. Manufacturing methods and applications of membranes in microfluidics. Biomed Microdevices 2016; 18:104. [DOI: 10.1007/s10544-016-0130-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abram TJ, Floriano PN, Christodoulides N, James R, Kerr AR, Thornhill MH, Redding SW, Vigneswaran N, Speight PM, Vick J, Murdoch C, Freeman C, Hegarty AM, D'Apice K, Phelan JA, Corby PM, Khouly I, Bouquot J, Demian NM, Weinstock YE, Rowan S, Yeh CK, McGuff HS, Miller FR, Gaur S, Karthikeyan K, Taylor L, Le C, Nguyen M, Talavera H, Raja R, Wong J, McDevitt JT. 'Cytology-on-a-chip' based sensors for monitoring of potentially malignant oral lesions. Oral Oncol 2016; 60:103-11. [PMID: 27531880 DOI: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Despite significant advances in surgical procedures and treatment, long-term prognosis for patients with oral cancer remains poor, with survival rates among the lowest of major cancers. Better methods are desperately needed to identify potential malignancies early when treatments are more effective. OBJECTIVE To develop robust classification models from cytology-on-a-chip measurements that mirror diagnostic performance of gold standard approach involving tissue biopsy. MATERIALS AND METHODS Measurements were recorded from 714 prospectively recruited patients with suspicious lesions across 6 diagnostic categories (each confirmed by tissue biopsy -histopathology) using a powerful new 'cytology-on-a-chip' approach capable of executing high content analysis at a single cell level. Over 200 cellular features related to biomarker expression, nuclear parameters and cellular morphology were recorded per cell. By cataloging an average of 2000 cells per patient, these efforts resulted in nearly 13 million indexed objects. RESULTS Binary "low-risk"/"high-risk" models yielded AUC values of 0.88 and 0.84 for training and validation models, respectively, with an accompanying difference in sensitivity+specificity of 6.2%. In terms of accuracy, this model accurately predicted the correct diagnosis approximately 70% of the time, compared to the 69% initial agreement rate of the pool of expert pathologists. Key parameters identified in these models included cell circularity, Ki67 and EGFR expression, nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio, nuclear area, and cell area. CONCLUSIONS This chip-based approach yields objective data that can be leveraged for diagnosis and management of patients with PMOL as well as uncovering new molecular-level insights behind cytological differences across the OED spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Abram
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | | | - A Ross Kerr
- New York University College of Dentistry, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Radiology & Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Martin H Thornhill
- Academic Unit of Oral & Maxillofacial Medicine & Surgery, University of Sheffield School of Clinical Dentistry, Sheffield, UK
| | - Spencer W Redding
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Comprehensive Dentistry and Cancer Therapy and Research Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Nadarajah Vigneswaran
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Diagnostic and Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Paul M Speight
- Academic Unit of Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology, University of Sheffield School of Clinical Dentistry, Sheffield, UK
| | | | - Craig Murdoch
- Academic Unit of Oral & Maxillofacial Medicine & Surgery, University of Sheffield School of Clinical Dentistry, Sheffield, UK
| | - Christine Freeman
- Academic Unit of Oral & Maxillofacial Medicine & Surgery, University of Sheffield School of Clinical Dentistry, Sheffield, UK
| | - Anne M Hegarty
- Unit of Oral Medicine, Charles Clifford Dental Hospital, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals National Health Service Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK
| | - Katy D'Apice
- Unit of Oral Medicine, Charles Clifford Dental Hospital, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals National Health Service Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK
| | - Joan A Phelan
- New York University College of Dentistry, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Radiology & Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Patricia M Corby
- New York University School of Medicine, Department of Population Health and Radiation Oncology, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ismael Khouly
- New York University College of Dentistry, Bluestone Center for Clinical Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jerry Bouquot
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Diagnostic and Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nagi M Demian
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Y Etan Weinstock
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Stephanie Rowan
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Comprehensive Dentistry and Cancer Therapy and Research Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Chih-Ko Yeh
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Comprehensive Dentistry and Cancer Therapy and Research Center, San Antonio, TX, USA; South Texas Veterans Health Care System, Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - H Stan McGuff
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Pathology, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Frank R Miller
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery and Cancer Therapy and Research Center, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Surabhi Gaur
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Leander Taylor
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Cathy Le
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Michael Nguyen
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Rameez Raja
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jorge Wong
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA
| | - John T McDevitt
- Rice University, Department of Bioengineering, Houston, TX, USA; Rice University, Department of Chemistry, Houston, TX, USA; New York University, Department of Biomaterials, New York, NY, USA.
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Ondera TJ, Hamme AT. Magnetic-optical nanohybrids for targeted detection, separation, and photothermal ablation of drug-resistant pathogens. Analyst 2016; 140:7902-11. [PMID: 26469636 DOI: 10.1039/c5an00497g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A rapid, sensitive and quantitative immunoassay for the targeted detection and decontamination of E. coli based on Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and plasmonic popcorn-shaped gold nanostructure attached single-walled carbon nanotubes (AuNP@SWCNT) is presented. The MNPs were synthesized as the support for a monoclonal antibody (mAb@MNP). E. coli (49979) was captured and rapidly preconcentrated from the sample with the mAb@MNP, followed by binding with Raman-tagged concanavalin A-AuNP@SWCNTs (Con A-AuNP@SWCNTs) as detector nanoprobes. A Raman tag 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) generated a Raman signal upon 670 nm laser excitation enabling the detection and quantification of E. coli concentration with a limit of detection of 10(2) CFU mL(-1) and a linear logarithmic response range of 1.0 × 10(2) to 1.0 × 10(7) CFU mL(-1). The mAb@MNP could remove more than 98% of E. coli (initial concentration of 1.3 × 10(4) CFU mL(-1)) from water. The potential of the immunoassay to detect E. coli bacteria in real water samples was investigated and the results were compared with the experimental results from the classical count method. There was no statistically significant difference between the two methods (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the MNP/AuNP@SWCNT hybrid system exhibits an enhanced photothermal killing effect. The sandwich-like immunoassay possesses potential for rapid bioanalysis and the simultaneous biosensing of multiple pathogenic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Ondera
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, 1400 J R Lynch street, Jackson, MS 39217, USA.
| | - Ashton T Hamme
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Jackson State University, 1400 J R Lynch street, Jackson, MS 39217, USA.
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Fujinami Y, Hirai Y, Sakai I, Yoshino M, Yasuda J. Sensitive Detection ofBacillus anthracisUsing a Binding Protein Originating from γ-Phage. Microbiol Immunol 2013; 51:163-9. [PMID: 17310083 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2007.tb03894.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Detection of biological weapons is a primary concern in force protection, treaty verification, and safeguarding civilian populations against domestic terrorism. One great concern is the detection of Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop novel methods for rapid, simple, and precise detection of B. anthracis. Here, we report that the C-terminal region of gamma-phage lysin protein (PlyG) binds specifically to the cell wall of B. anthracis and the recombinant protein corresponding to this region (positions, 156-233), PlyGB, is available as a bioprobe for detection of B. anthracis. Our detection method, based on a membrane direct blot assay using recombinant PlyGB, was more rapid and sensitive than the gamma-phage test and was simpler and more inexpensive than genetic methods such as PCR, or immunological methods using specific antibodies. Furthermore, its specificity was comparable to the gamma-phage test. PlyGB is applicable in conventional methods instead of antibodies and could be a potent tool for detection of B. anthracis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihito Fujinami
- Department of First Forensic Science, National Research Institute of Police Science, Kashiva, Chiba, Japan
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Wu X, Xu C, Tripp RA, Huang YW, Zhao Y. Detection and differentiation of foodborne pathogenic bacteria in mung bean sprouts using field deployable label-free SERS devices. Analyst 2013; 138:3005-12. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an00186e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Christodoulides N, Pierre FN, Sanchez X, Li L, Hocquard K, Patton A, Muldoon R, Miller CS, Ebersole JL, Redding S, Yeh CK, Furmaga WB, Wampler DA, Bozkurt B, Ballantyne CM, McDevitt JT. Programmable bio-nanochip technology for the diagnosis of cardiovascular disease at the point-of-care. Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J 2012; 8:6-12. [PMID: 22891104 DOI: 10.14797/mdcj-8-1-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death in the world and continues to serve as the major contributor to healthcare costs. Likewise, there is an ever-increasing need and demand for novel and more efficient diagnostic tools for the early detection of cardiovascular disease, especially at the point-of-care (POC). This article reviews the programmable bio-nanochip (P-BNC) system, a new medical microdevice approach with the capacity to deliver both high performance and reduced cost. This fully integrated, total analysis system leverages microelectronic components, microfabrication techniques, and nanotechnology to noninvasively measure multiple cardiac biomarkers in complex fluids, such as saliva, while offering diagnostic accuracy equal to laboratory-confined reference methods. This article profiles the P-BNC approach, describes its performance in real-world testing of clinical samples, and summarizes new opportunities for medical microdevices in the field of cardiac diagnostics.
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Yanagisawa N, Dutta D. Enhancement in the sensitivity of microfluidic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays through analyte preconcentration. Anal Chem 2012; 84:7029-36. [PMID: 22861072 DOI: 10.1021/ac3011632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this Article, we describe a microfluidic enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method whose sensitivity can be substantially enhanced through preconcentration of the target analyte around a semipermeable membrane. The reported preconcentration has been accomplished in our current work via electrokinetic means allowing a significant increase in the amount of captured analyte relative to nonspecific binding in the trapping/detection zone. Upon introduction of an enzyme substrate into this region, the rate of generation of the ELISA reaction product (resorufin) was observed to increase by over a factor of 200 for the sample and 2 for the corresponding blank compared to similar assays without analyte trapping. Interestingly, in spite of nonuniformities in the amount of captured analyte along the surface of our analysis channel, the measured fluorescence signal in the preconcentration zone increased linearly with time over an enzyme reaction period of 30 min and at a rate that was proportional to the analyte concentration in the bulk sample. In our current study, the reported technique has been shown to reduce the smallest detectable concentration of the tumor marker CA 19-9 and Blue Tongue Viral antibody by over 2 orders of magnitude compared to immunoassays without analyte preconcentration. When compared to microwell based ELISAs, the reported microfluidic approach not only yielded a similar improvement in the smallest detectable analyte concentration but also reduced the sample consumption in the assay by a factor of 20 (5 μL versus 100 μL).
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Yanagisawa
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA
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Seehuber A, Schmidt D, Dahint R. Poly(acrylic acid)-poly(ethylene glycol) layers on positively charged surface coatings: molecular structure, protein resistance, and application to single protein deposition. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2012; 28:8700-8710. [PMID: 22571171 DOI: 10.1021/la2050652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A new copolymer (PAA-PEG2000) has been designed, consisting of a negatively charged poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) backbone to which poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) side chains with a molecular weight of about 2 kDa were grafted in a molecular ratio of 3:10. It readily adsorbs to positively charged surfaces and may be considered to be the anionic counterpart of PEG-grafted poly(l-lysine) (PLL-PEG), which was first described by Kenausis et al. and is widely used to render negatively charged surfaces protein-resistant. The synthesis of PAA-PEG2000 can be carried out in aqueous solution at room temperature and does not require any sophisticated techniques such as handling in an inert gas atmosphere. Using ellipsometry and infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS), the film structure has been carefully analyzed for copolymer adsorption onto three different positively charged surfaces, namely, thin layers of poly(allylamine) (PAH), poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI) and (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES). Besides the film thickness, the conformation of the PEG chains and their orientation with respect to the surface normal appear to be important parameters for the protein resistance of the films. Although PAA-PEG2000 adsorbed to PAH and PEI renders the surfaces inert, only partial protein resistance has been observed if the copolymer is deposited on APTES. In a model application, we have generated heterogeneous surfaces composed of isolated small Au nanoparticles (AuNP's) embedded in a protein-resistant layer of PAA-PEG2000 and demonstrated that the AuNP's can serve as adsorption sites for single protein species. In the future, these nanopatterned surfaces may be used for the investigation of isolated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Seehuber
- Applied Physical Chemistry, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Fu E, Yager P, Floriano PN, Christodoulides N, McDevitt JT. Perspective on diagnostics for global health. IEEE Pulse 2012; 2:40-50. [PMID: 22147068 DOI: 10.1109/mpul.2011.942766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elain Fu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Washington, USA.
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Saito S, Massie TL, Maeda T, Nakazumi H, Colyer CL. On-Column Labeling of Gram-Positive Bacteria with a Boronic Acid Functionalized Squarylium Cyanine Dye for Analysis by Polymer-Enhanced Capillary Transient Isotachophoresis. Anal Chem 2012; 84:2452-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2031145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shingo Saito
- Department of Chemistry, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109,
United States
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama
338-8570, Japan
| | - Tara L. Massie
- Department of Chemistry, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109,
United States
| | - Takeshi Maeda
- Graduate
School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Nakazumi
- Graduate
School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Christa L. Colyer
- Department of Chemistry, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27109,
United States
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17
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Liu CC, Liu Y, Wang HX, Qi YB, Yang PY, Liu BH. Apolipoprotein B100 analysis in microchip with electrochemical detection. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2011.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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18
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Yue W, Li CW, Xu T, Yang M. Integrated sieving microstructures on microchannels for biological cell trapping and droplet formation. LAB ON A CHIP 2011; 11:3352-3355. [PMID: 21853193 DOI: 10.1039/c1lc20446g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a single step microfabrication method to prepare constriction microstructures on a PCB master by controlling the etching time of two microchannels separated by a finite distance that is easily attainable using imagesetters widely available in the printing industry. PDMS replica of the constriction structures present sieving microstructures (microsieves) that could be used for size-dependent trapping of microspheres, biological cells and the formation of water-in-oil droplets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanqing Yue
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR
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19
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Ebrahimi Warkiani M, Lou CP, Gong HQ. Fabrication of multi-layer polymeric micro-sieve having narrow slot pores with conventional ultraviolet-lithography and micro-fabrication techniques. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2011; 5:36504-365049. [PMID: 22662051 PMCID: PMC3364839 DOI: 10.1063/1.3637630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Fast detection of waterborne pathogens is important for securing the hygiene of drinking water. Detection of pathogens in water at low concentrations and minute quantities demands rapid and efficient enrichment methods in order to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of bio-sensors. We propose and demonstrate a low cost and rapid method to fabricate a multi-layer polymeric micro-sieve using conventional lithography techniques. The micro-fabricated micro-sieves are made of several layers of SU-8 photoresist using multiple coating and exposure steps and a single developing process. The obtained micro-sieves have good mechanical properties, smooth surfaces, high porosity (≈40%), and narrow pore size distribution (coefficient of variation < 3.33%). Sample loading and back-flushing using the multi-layer micro-sieve resulted in more than 90% recovery of pathogens, which showed improved performance than current commercial filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majid Ebrahimi Warkiani
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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20
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Selective capturing and detection of Salmonella typhi on polycarbonate membrane using bioconjugated quantum dots. Talanta 2011; 84:952-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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21
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Monitoring biofilm development in a microfluidic device using modified confocal reflection microscopy. J Biosci Bioeng 2010; 110:377-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2010.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2010] [Revised: 04/01/2010] [Accepted: 04/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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22
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Yawata Y, Toda K, Setoyama E, Fukuda J, Suzuki H, Uchiyama H, Nomura N. Bacterial growth monitoring in a microfluidic device by confocal reflection microscopy. J Biosci Bioeng 2010; 110:130-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2010.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2009] [Revised: 01/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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23
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Detection technologies for Bacillus anthracis: Prospects and challenges. J Microbiol Methods 2010; 82:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2010.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2010] [Revised: 04/09/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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24
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Zhu T, Pei Z, Huang J, Xiong C, Shi S, Fang J. Detection of bacterial cells by impedance spectra via fluidic electrodes in a microfluidic device. LAB ON A CHIP 2010; 10:1557-1560. [PMID: 20517558 DOI: 10.1039/b925968f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a novel method for detecting bacterial cells in deionized (DI) water suspension is presented by using fluidic electrodes with a hydrodynamic focusing technique. KCl solution was utilized as both sheath flow and fluidic electrodes, and the bacterial suspension was squeezed to form three flowing layers with different conductivities on a microfluidic chip. An impedance analyzer was connected with the KCl solution through two Ag/AgCl wires to apply an AC voltage to fluidic layers within a certain frequency for impedance measurements. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Escherichia coli were detected and linear relationships were found between the impedance and the logarithmic value of the bacterial concentration in certain cell concentration ranges. It is demonstrated that bacterial detection using the microdevice is rapid and convenient, with a chip made of simple flow channels, and the detection sensitivity of cell counting can be tuned by varying the width of the sample flow layer through changing input velocities, showing a detection limit of 10(3) cells mL(-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
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25
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Weigum SE, Floriano PN, Redding SW, Yeh CK, Westbrook SD, McGuff HS, Lin A, Miller FR, Villarreal F, Rowan SD, Vigneswaran N, Williams MD, McDevitt JT. Nano-bio-chip sensor platform for examination of oral exfoliative cytology. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2010; 3:518-28. [PMID: 20332305 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-09-0139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Oral cancer is a deadly and disfiguring disease that could greatly benefit from new diagnostic approaches enabling early detection. In this pilot study, we describe a nano-bio-chip (NBC) sensor technique for analysis of oral cancer biomarkers in exfoliative cytology specimens, targeting both biochemical and morphologic changes associated with early oral tumorigenesis. Here, oral lesions from 41 dental patients, along with normal epithelium from 11 healthy volunteers, were sampled using a noninvasive brush biopsy technique. Specimens were enriched, immunolabeled, and imaged in the NBC sensor according to previously established assays for the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) biomarker and cytomorphometry. A total of 51 measurement parameters were extracted using custom image analysis macros, including EGFR labeling intensity, cell and nuclear size, and the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio. Four key parameters were significantly elevated in both dysplastic and malignant lesions relative to healthy oral epithelium, including the nuclear area and diameter (P < 0.0001), the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio (P < 0.0001), and EGFR biomarker expression (P < 0.03). Further examination using logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic curve analyses identified morphologic features as the best predictors of disease (area under the curve < or =0.93) individually, whereas a combination of all features further enhanced discrimination of oral cancer and precancerous conditions (area under the curve, 0.94) with high sensitivity and specificity. Further clinical trials are necessary to validate the regression model and evaluate other potential biomarkers, but this pilot study supports the NBC sensor technique as a promising new diagnostic tool for early detection of oral cancer, which could enhance patient care and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon E Weigum
- Departments of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX 77005, USA
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Jokerst JV, McDevitt JT. Programmable nano-bio-chips: multifunctional clinical tools for use at the point-of-care. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2010; 5:143-55. [PMID: 20025471 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.09.94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A new generation of programmable diagnostic devices is needed to take advantage of information generated from the study of genomics, proteomics, metabolomics and glycomics. This report describes the 'programmable nano-bio-chip' with potential to bridge the significant scientific, technology and clinical gaps through the creation of a diagnostic platform to measure the molecules of life. This approach, with results at the point-of-care, possesses capabilities for measuring such diverse analyte classes as cells, proteins, DNA and small molecules in the same compact device. Applications such as disease diagnosis and prognosis for areas including cancer, heart disease and HIV are described. New diagnostic panels are inserted as 'plug and play' elements into the modular platform with universal assay operating systems and standard read out sequences. The nano-bio-chip ensemble exhibits excellent analytical performance and cost-effectiveness with extensive validation versus standard reference methods (R(2) = 0.95-0.99). This report describes the construction and use of two major classes of nano-bio-chip designs that serve as cellular and chemical processing units, and provides perspective on future growth in this newly emerging field of programmable nano-bio-chip sensor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse V Jokerst
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 318 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305-5427, USA.
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27
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Jokerst JV, Jacobson JW, Bhagwandin BD, Floriano PN, Christodoulides N, McDevitt JT. Programmable nano-bio-chip sensors: analytical meets clinical. Anal Chem 2010; 82:1571-9. [PMID: 20128622 PMCID: PMC2853750 DOI: 10.1021/ac901743u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
There have been many recent advances in the nano-bio-chip analysis methodology with implications for a number of high-morbidity diseases including HIV, cancer, and heart disease. (To listen to a podcast about this article, please go to the Analytical Chemistry multimedia page at pubs.acs.org/page/ancham/audio/index.html .).
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28
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Miller CS, Foley JD, Bailey AL, Campell CL, Humphries RL, Christodoulides N, Floriano PN, Simmons G, Bhagwandin B, Jacobson JW, Redding SW, Ebersole JL, McDevitt JT. Current developments in salivary diagnostics. Biomark Med 2010; 4:171-89. [PMID: 20387312 PMCID: PMC2857781 DOI: 10.2217/bmm.09.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Salivary diagnostics is an emerging field that has progressed through several important developments in the past decade, including the publication of the human salivary proteome and the infusion of federal funds to integrate nanotechnologies and microfluidic engineering concepts into developing compact point-of-care devices for rapid analysis of this secretion. In this article, we discuss some of these developments and their relevance to the prognosis, diagnosis and management of periodontitis, as an oral target, and cardiovascular disease, as a systemic example for the potential of these biodiagnostics. Our findings suggest that several biomarkers are associated with distinct biological stages of these diseases and demonstrate promise as practical biomarkers in identifying and managing periodontal disease, and acute myocardial infarction. The majority of these studies have progressed through biomarker discovery, with the identified molecules requiring more robust clinical studies to enable substantive validation for disease diagnosis. It is predicted that with continued advances in this field the use of a combination of biomarkers in multiplex panels is likely to yield accurate screening tools for these diagnoses in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig S Miller
- Oral Medicine Section, MN 324, University of Kentucky College of Dentistry, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0297, USA Tel.: +1 859 323 5598
| | - Joseph D Foley
- Gill Heart Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Alison L Bailey
- Gill Heart Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Charles L Campell
- Gill Heart Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
- Lexington Veterans Administration Hospital, Lexington, KY, USA
| | | | | | | | - Glennon Simmons
- Bioengineering & Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Spencer W Redding
- Department of Dental Diagnostic Sciences, University of Texas, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Ebersole
- Oral Medicine Section, MN 324, University of Kentucky College of Dentistry, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0297, USA Tel.: +1 859 323 5598
| | - John T McDevitt
- Bioengineering & Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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29
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Nayak M, Kotian A, Marathe S, Chakravortty D. Detection of microorganisms using biosensors—A smarter way towards detection techniques. Biosens Bioelectron 2009; 25:661-7. [PMID: 19782558 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2009.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Revised: 08/22/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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30
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Implications of limits of detection of various methods for Bacillus anthracis in computing risks to human health. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:6331-9. [PMID: 19648357 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00288-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Used for decades for biological warfare, Bacillus anthracis (category A agent) has proven to be highly stable and lethal. Quantitative risk assessment modeling requires descriptive statistics of the limit of detection to assist in defining the exposure. Furthermore, the sensitivities of various detection methods in environmental matrices are vital information for first responders. A literature review of peer-reviewed journal articles related to methods for detection of B. anthracis was undertaken. Articles focused on the development or evaluation of various detection approaches, such as PCR, real-time PCR, immunoassay, etc. Real-time PCR and PCR were the most sensitive methods for the detection of B. anthracis, with median instrument limits of detection of 430 and 440 cells/ml, respectively. There were very few peer-reviewed articles on the detection methods for B. anthracis in the environment. The most sensitive limits of detection for the environmental samples were 0.1 CFU/g for soil using PCR-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 17 CFU/liter for air using an ELISA-biochip system, 1 CFU/liter for water using cultivation, and 1 CFU/cm(2) for stainless steel fomites using cultivation. An exponential dose-response model for the inhalation of B. anthracis estimates of risk at concentrations equal to the environmental limit of detection determined the probability of death if untreated to be as high as 0.520. Though more data on the environmental limit of detection would improve the assumptions made for the risk assessment, this study's quantification of the risk posed by current limitations in the knowledge of detection methods should be considered when employing those methods in environmental monitoring and cleanup strategies.
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31
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Floriano PN, Christodoulides N, Miller CS, Ebersole JL, Spertus J, Rose BG, Kinane DF, Novak MJ, Steinhubl S, Acosta S, Mohanty S, Dharshan P, Yeh CK, Redding S, Furmaga W, McDevitt JT. Use of saliva-based nano-biochip tests for acute myocardial infarction at the point of care: a feasibility study. Clin Chem 2009; 55:1530-8. [PMID: 19556448 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2008.117713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For adults with chest pain, the electrocardiogram (ECG) and measures of serum biomarkers are used to screen and diagnose myocardial necrosis. These measurements require time that can delay therapy and affect prognosis. Our objective was to investigate the feasibility and utility of saliva as an alternative diagnostic fluid for identifying biomarkers of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). METHODS We used Luminex and lab-on-a-chip methods to assay 21 proteins in serum and unstimulated whole saliva procured from 41 AMI patients within 48 h of chest pain onset and from 43 apparently healthy controls. Data were analyzed by use of logistic regression and area under curve (AUC) for ROC analysis to evaluate the diagnostic utility of each biomarker, or combinations of biomarkers, in screening for AMI. RESULTS Both established and novel cardiac biomarkers demonstrated significant differences in concentrations between patients with AMI and controls without AMI. The saliva-based biomarker panel of C-reactive protein, myoglobin, and myeloperoxidase exhibited significant diagnostic capability (AUC = 0.85, P < 0.0001) and in conjunction with ECG yielded strong screening capacity for AMI (AUC = 0.96) comparable to that of the panel (brain natriuretic peptide, troponin-I, creatine kinase-MB, myoglobin; AUC = 0.98) and far exceeded the screening capacity of ECG alone (AUC approximately 0.6). En route to translating these findings to clinical practice, we adapted these unstimulated whole saliva tests to a novel lab-on-a-chip platform for proof-of-principle screens for AMI. CONCLUSIONS Complementary to ECG, saliva-based tests within lab-on-a-chip systems may provide a convenient and rapid screening method for cardiac events in prehospital stages for AMI patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre N Floriano
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78735, USA
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Mairhofer J, Roppert K, Ertl P. Microfluidic systems for pathogen sensing: a review. SENSORS 2009; 9:4804-23. [PMID: 22408555 PMCID: PMC3291940 DOI: 10.3390/s90604804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2009] [Revised: 06/04/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Rapid pathogen sensing remains a pressing issue today since conventional identification methodsare tedious, cost intensive and time consuming, typically requiring from 48 to 72 h. In turn, chip based technologies, such as microarrays and microfluidic biochips, offer real alternatives capable of filling this technological gap. In particular microfluidic biochips make the development of fast, sensitive and portable diagnostic tools possible, thus promising rapid and accurate detection of a variety of pathogens. This paper will provide a broad overview of the novel achievements in the field of pathogen sensing by focusing on methods and devices that compliment microfluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Mairhofer
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Kriemhilt Roppert
- Division of Nano-System-Technologies, Austrian Research Centers GmbH – ARC, Donau-City-Street 1, 1220 Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Ertl
- Division of Nano-System-Technologies, Austrian Research Centers GmbH – ARC, Donau-City-Street 1, 1220 Vienna, Austria
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +43-(0)50550-4305; Fax: +43-(0)50550-4399
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33
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Horká M, Růžička F, Kubesová A, Holá V, Šlais K. Capillary Electrophoresis of Conidia from Cultivated Microscopic Filamentous Fungi. Anal Chem 2009; 81:3997-4004. [DOI: 10.1021/ac900374v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Horká
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Veveří 97, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, and Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Filip Růžička
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Veveří 97, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, and Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Anna Kubesová
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Veveří 97, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, and Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Holá
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Veveří 97, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, and Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Šlais
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v. v. i., Veveří 97, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic, and Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic
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34
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Applications of microfluidic systems in environmental analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 393:555-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-008-2439-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2008] [Revised: 09/20/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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35
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Bao N, Jagadeesan B, Bhunia AK, Yao Y, Lu C. Quantification of bacterial cells based on autofluorescence on a microfluidic platform. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1181:153-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2007] [Revised: 11/15/2007] [Accepted: 12/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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36
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Chichester KD, Silcott DB, Colyer CL. Analysis ofBacillus globigii spores by CE. Electrophoresis 2008; 29:641-51. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.200700605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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37
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CREVILLEN A, HERVAS M, LOPEZ M, GONZALEZ M, ESCARPA A. Real sample analysis on microfluidic devices☆. Talanta 2007; 74:342-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2007.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Revised: 09/27/2007] [Accepted: 10/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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38
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Liu Y, Brandon R, Cate M, Peng X, Stony R, Johnson M. Detection of pathogens using luminescent CdSe/ZnS dendron nanocrystals and a porous membrane immunofilter. Anal Chem 2007; 79:8796-802. [PMID: 17939743 DOI: 10.1021/ac0709605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A biosensor system for detection of pathogens was developed by using CdSe/ZnS core/shell dendron nanocrystals with high efficiency and stability as fluorescence labels and a flowing chamber with a microporous immunofilter. The antibody-immobilized immunofilter captured the targeted pathogens, Escherichia coli O157:H7 as an example for bacteria and hepatitis B being a model system for viruses. The CdSe/ZnS core/shell dendron nanocrystals were conjugated with the corresponding antibodies and then passed through the microporous membrane where they attached to the membrane-antigen-antibody. The efficient and stable photoluminescence (PL) of the CdSe/ZnS nanocrystals on the formed "sandwich" structure complexes (membrane-antigen-antibody conjugated with the nanocrystals) was used as the detection means. The effects of the pore size of the membranes, buffer pH, and assay time on the detection of E. coli O157:H7 were investigated and optimized. The detectable level of this new system was as low as 2.3 CFU/mL for E. coli O157:H7 and 5 ng/mL for hepatitis B surface Ag (HBsAg). The assay time was shortened to 30 min without any enrichment and incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongcheng Liu
- NN-Labs LLC, P.O. Box 2168, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72702, USA.
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39
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Chen Y, Guo Z, Wang X, Qiu C. Sample preparation. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1184:191-219. [PMID: 17991475 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2007] [Revised: 10/08/2007] [Accepted: 10/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A panorama of sample preparation methods has been composed from 481 references, with a highlight of some promising methods fast developed during recent years and a somewhat brief introduction on most of the well-developed methods. All the samples were commonly referred to molecular composition, being extendable to particles including cells but not to organs, tissues and larger bodies. Some criteria to evaluate or validate a sample preparation method were proposed for reference. Strategy for integration of several methods to prepare complicated protein samples for proteomic studies was illustrated and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Chen
- Beijing National Laboratory of Molecular Science, Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, China.
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40
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Weigum SE, Floriano PN, Christodoulides N, McDevitt JT. Cell-based sensor for analysis of EGFR biomarker expression in oral cancer. LAB ON A CHIP 2007; 7:995-1003. [PMID: 17653341 DOI: 10.1039/b703918b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Oral cancer is the sixth most common cancer worldwide and has been marked by high morbidity and poor survival rates that have changed little over the past few decades. Beyond prevention, early detection is the most crucial determinant for successful treatment and survival of cancer. Yet current methodologies for cancer diagnosis based upon pathological examination alone are insufficient for detecting early tumor progression and molecular transformation. To address this clinical need, we have developed a cell-based sensor to detect oral cancer biomarkers, such as the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) whose over-expression is associated with early oral tumorigenesis and aggressive cancer phenotypes. The lab-on-a-chip (LOC) sensor utilizes an embedded track-etched membrane, which functions as a micro-sieve, to capture and enrich cells from complex biological fluids or biopsy suspensions. Once captured, "on-membrane" immunofluorescent assays reveal the presence and isotype of interrogated cells via automated microscopy and fluorescent image analysis. Using the LOC sensor system, with integrated capture and staining technique, EGFR assays were completed in less than 10 minutes with staining intensity, homogeneity, and cellular localization patterns comparable to conventional labeling methods. Further examination of EGFR expression in three oral cancer cell lines revealed a significant increase (p < 0.05) above control cells with EGFR expression similar to normal squamous epithelium. Results obtained in the microfluidic sensor system correlated well with flow cytometry (r(2) = 0.98), the "gold standard" in quantitative protein expression analysis. In addition, the LOC sensor detected significant differences between two of the oral cancer cell lines (p < 0.01), accounting for disparity of approximately 34 000 EGFR per cell according to quantitative flow cytometry. Taken together, these results support the LOC sensor system as a suitable platform for rapid detection of oral cancer biomarkers and characterization of EGFR over-expression in oral malignancies. Application of this technique may be clinically useful in cancer diagnostics for early detection, prognostic evaluation, and therapeutic selection. Having demonstrated the functionality of this integrated microfluidic sensor system, further studies using clinical samples from oral cancer patients are now warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon E Weigum
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A5300, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Campbell GA, Mutharasan R. Method of MeasuringBacillusanthracisSpores in the Presence of Copious Amounts ofBacillusthuringiensisandBacilluscereus. Anal Chem 2007; 79:1145-52. [PMID: 17263347 DOI: 10.1021/ac060982b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and reliable method for the detection of Bacillus anthracis (BA; Sterne strain 7702) spores in presence of large amounts of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) and Bacillus cereus (BC) is presented based on a novel PZT-anchored piezoelectric excited millimeter-sized cantilever (PAPEMC) sensor with a sensing area of 1.5 mm2. Antibody (anti-BA) specific to BA spores was immobilized on the sensing area and exposed to various samples of BA, BT, and BC containing the same concentration of BA at 333 spores/mL, and the concentration of BT + BC was varied in concentration ratios of (BA:BT + BC) 0:1, 1:0, 1:1, 1:10, 1:100, and 1:1000. In each case, the sensor responded with an exponential decrease in resonant frequency and the steady-state frequency changes reached were 14 +/- 31 (n = 11), 2742 +/- 38 (n = 3), 3053 +/- 19 (n = 2), 2777 +/- 26 (n = 2), 2953 +/- 24 (n = 2), and 3105 +/- 27 (n = 2) Hz, respectively, in 0, 27, 45, 63, 154, and 219 min. The bound BA spores were released in each experiment, and the sensor response was nearly identical to the frequency change during attachment. These results suggest that the transport of BA spores to the antibody immobilized surface was hindered by the presence of other Bacillus species. The observed binding rate constant, based on the Langmuir kinetic model, was determined to be 0.15 min-1. A hindrance factor (alpha) is defined to describe the reduced attachment rate in the presence of BT + BC and found to increase exponentially with BT and BC concentration. The hindrance factor increased from 3.52 at 333 BT + BC spores/mL to 11.04 at 3.33 x 105 BT + BC spores/mL, suggesting that alpha is a strong function of BT and BC concentration. The significance of these results is that anti-BA functionalized PEMC sensors are highly selective to Bacillus anthracis spores and the presence of other Bacillus species, in large amounts, does not prevent binding but impedes BA transport to the sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gossett A Campbell
- Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Drexel University, 31st and Market Streets, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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Gadish N, Voldman J. High-Throughput Positive-Dielectrophoretic Bioparticle Microconcentrator. Anal Chem 2006; 78:7870-6. [PMID: 17105182 DOI: 10.1021/ac061170i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We introduce a new dielectrophoretic particle microconcentrator that combines interdigitated electrodes with a chaotic mixer to achieve high-throughput (>100 microL/min) particle concentration. The interdigitated electrodes use positive dielectrophoresis to attract particles to the surface, while the chaotic mixer circulates the particles to increase the number brought in proximity with the surface. We have used this microconcentrator to concentrate both beads and B. subtilis spores and have developed a microvolume concentration measurement method to determine the delivered off-chip concentration enhancement of the output sample. The resulting microconcentrator is sufficiently high throughput to serve as an interface between macroscale sample collectors and micro- or nanoscale detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitzan Gadish
- Department of Electrical and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Building 36-854, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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de Jong J, Lammertink RGH, Wessling M. Membranes and microfluidics: a review. LAB ON A CHIP 2006; 6:1125-39. [PMID: 16929391 DOI: 10.1039/b603275c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The integration of mass transport control by means of membrane functionality into microfluidic devices has shown substantial growth over the last 10 years. Many different examples of mass transport control have been reported, demonstrating the versatile use of membranes. This review provides an overview of the developments in this area of research. Furthermore, it aims to bridge the fields of microfabrication and membrane science from a membrane point-of-view. First the basic terminology of membrane science will be discussed. Then the integration of membrane characteristics on-chip will be categorized based on the used fabrication method. Subsequently, applications in various fields will be reviewed. Considerations for the use of membranes will be discussed and a checklist with selection criteria will be provided that can serve as a starting point for those researchers interested in applying membrane-technology on-chip. Finally, opportunities for microfluidics based on proven membrane technology will be outlined. A special focus in this review is made on the membrane properties of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), since this material is frequently used nowadays in master replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- J de Jong
- Membrane Technology Group, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, NL-7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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Campbell GA, Mutharasan R. Piezoelectric-excited millimeter-sized cantilever (PEMC) sensors detect Bacillus anthracis at 300spores/mL. Biosens Bioelectron 2006; 21:1684-92. [PMID: 16169715 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2005.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2005] [Revised: 07/25/2005] [Accepted: 08/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Piezoelectric-excited millimeter-sized cantilever (PEMC) sensors consisting of a piezoelectric and a borosilicate glass layer with a sensing area of 2.48 mm2 were fabricated. Antibody specific to Bacillus anthracis (BA, Sterne strain 7702) spores was immobilized on PEMC sensors, and exposed to spores (300 to 3x10(6) spores/mL). The resonant frequency decreased at a rate proportional to the spore concentration and reached a steady state frequency change of 5+/-5 Hz (n=3), 92+/-7 Hz (n=3), 500+/-10 Hz (n=3), 1030+/-10 Hz (n=2), and 2696+/-6 Hz (n=2) corresponding to 0, 3x10(2), 3x10(3), 3x10(4), and 3x10(6) spores/mL, respectively. The reduction in resonant frequency is proportional to the change in cantilever mass, and thus the observed changes are due to the attachment of spores on the sensor surface. Selectivity of the antibody-functionalized sensor was determined with samples of BA (3x10(6)/mL) mixed with Bacillus thuringiensis (BT; 1.5x10(9)/mL) in various volume ratios that yielded BA:BT ratios of 1:0, 1:125, 1:250, 1:500 and 0:1. The corresponding resonance frequency decreases were, respectively, 2345, 1980, 1310, 704 and 10 Hz. Sample containing 100% BT spores (1.5x10(9)/mL and no BA) gave a steady state frequency decrease of 10 Hz, which is within noise level of the sensor, indicating excellent selectivity. The observed binding rate constant for the pure BA and BT-containing samples ranged from 0.105 to 0.043 min-1 in the spore concentration range 300 to 3x10(6)/mL. These results show that detection of B. anthracis spore at a very low concentration (300 spores/mL) and with high selectivity in presence of another Bacillus spore (BT) can be accomplished using piezoelectric-excited millimeter-sized cantilever sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gossett A Campbell
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Christodoulides N, Floriano PN, Acosta SA, Ballard KLM, Weigum SE, Mohanty S, Dharshan P, Romanovicz D, McDevitt JT. Toward the development of a lab-on-a-chip dual-function leukocyte and C-reactive protein analysis method for the assessment of inflammation and cardiac risk. Clin Chem 2006; 51:2391-5. [PMID: 16306107 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2005.054882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolaos Christodoulides
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, 78735, USA
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Rodriguez WR, Christodoulides N, Floriano PN, Graham S, Mohanty S, Dixon M, Hsiang M, Peter T, Zavahir S, Thior I, Romanovicz D, Bernard B, Goodey AP, Walker BD, McDevitt JT. A microchip CD4 counting method for HIV monitoring in resource-poor settings. PLoS Med 2005; 2:e182. [PMID: 16013921 PMCID: PMC1176233 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2005] [Accepted: 04/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND More than 35 million people in developing countries are living with HIV infection. An enormous global effort is now underway to bring antiretroviral treatment to at least 3 million of those infected. While drug prices have dropped considerably, the cost and technical complexity of laboratory tests essential for the management of HIV disease, such as CD4 cell counts, remain prohibitive. New, simple, and affordable methods for measuring CD4 cells that can be implemented in resource-scarce settings are urgently needed. METHODS AND FINDINGS Here we describe the development of a prototype for a simple, rapid, and affordable method for counting CD4 lymphocytes. Microliter volumes of blood without further sample preparation are stained with fluorescent antibodies, captured on a membrane within a miniaturized flow cell and imaged through microscope optics with the type of charge-coupled device developed for digital camera technology. An associated computer algorithm converts the raw digital image into absolute CD4 counts and CD4 percentages in real time. The accuracy of this prototype system was validated through testing in the United States and Botswana, and showed close agreement with standard flow cytometry (r = 0.95) over a range of absolute CD4 counts, and the ability to discriminate clinically relevant CD4 count thresholds with high sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSION Advances in the adaptation of new technologies to biomedical detection systems, such as the one described here, promise to make complex diagnostics for HIV and other infectious diseases a practical global reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Rodriguez
- 1 Partners AIDS Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
- 2 Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- 3 Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicolaos Christodoulides
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Pierre N Floriano
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Susan Graham
- 3 Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sanghamitra Mohanty
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Meredith Dixon
- 1 Partners AIDS Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mina Hsiang
- 1 Partners AIDS Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Trevor Peter
- 5 Botswana–Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership, Princess Marina Hospital, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Shabnam Zavahir
- 5 Botswana–Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership, Princess Marina Hospital, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Ibou Thior
- 5 Botswana–Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership, Princess Marina Hospital, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Dwight Romanovicz
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Bruce Bernard
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Adrian P Goodey
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
| | - Bruce D Walker
- 1 Partners AIDS Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
- 2 Division of AIDS, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - John T McDevitt
- 4 Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, United States of America
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