Real-time, continuous detection of maltose using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) on a microfluidic system

Current State of Sensors and Sensing Systems Utilized in Beer Analysis

Beer is one of the most consumed beverages in the world. Advances in instrumental techniques have allowed the analysis and characterization of a large number of beers. However, review studies that outline the methodologies used in beer characterization are scarce. Herein, a systematic review investigating the molecular targets and sensometric techniques in beer characterization was performed following the PRISMA protocol. The study reviewed 270 articles related to beer analysis in order to provide a comprehensive summary of the recent advances in beer analysis, including methods using sensors and sensing systems. The results revealed the use of various techniques that include several technologies, such as nanotechnology and electronics, often combined with scientific data analysis tools. To our knowledge, this study is the first of its kind and provides the reader with a faithful overview of what has been done in the sensor field regarding beer characterization.

New application of a traditional method: colorimetric sensor array for reducing sugars based on the in-situ formation of core-shell gold nanorod-coated silver nanoparticles by the traditional Tollens reaction

An effective and robust colorimetric sensor array for simultaneous detection and discrimination of five reducing sugars (i.e., glyceraldehyde (Gly), fructose (Fru), glucose (Glu), maltose (Mal), and ribose (Rib)) has been proposed. In the sensor array, two negatively charged polydielectrics (sodium polystyrenesulfonate (NaPSS) and sodium polymethacrylate (NaPMAA)), which served as the sensing elements, were individually absorbed on the surface of the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)-coated gold nanorods (AuNR) with positive charges through electrostatic action, forming the designed sensor units (NaPSS-AuNR and NaPMAA-AuNR). In the presence of Tollens reagent (Ag(NH₃)₂OH), Ag⁺ was absorbed on the surface of negatively charged NaPSS-AuNR and NaPMAA-AuNRs. When confronted with differential reducing sugars, different reducing sugars exhibited differential levels of deoxidizing abilities toward Ag⁺, thus Ag⁺ was reduced to diverse amounts of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in situ to form core-shell AuNR@AgNP by the traditional Tollens reaction method, leading to distinct colorimetric response patterns (value of A_S/A_L (the ratio of absorbance at 360 nm to that at 760 nm in Ag⁺-NaPMAA-AuNR, and the ratio of absorbance at 360 nm to that at 740 nm in Ag⁺-NaPSS-AuNR)). These response patterns are characteristic for each reducing sugar, and can be quantitatively distinguished by linear discriminant analysis (LDA) at concentrations as low as 10 nM with relative standard deviation (RSD) of 4.11% (n = 3). The practicability of this sensor array has been validated by recognition of reducing sugars in serum and urine samples. A colorimetric sensor array for reducing sugar discrimination based on the reduction of Ag⁺ and in situ formation of AuNR@AgNP.

Tandem reassembly of split luciferase-DNA chimeras for bioluminescent detection of attomolar circulating microRNAs using a smartphone

Detection of dysregulated circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) in human biofluids is a fundamental ability to determine tumor occurrence and metastasis in a minimally invasive fashion. However, the requirements for sophisticated instruments and professional personnel impede the translation of miRNA tests into routine clinical diagnostics, especially for resource-limited regions. Herein, we developed a DNA-guided bioluminescence strategy for the detection of circulating miRNAs. In this strategy, a pair of split luciferase-DNA chimeras was constructed and integrated into the miRNA-triggered rolling circle amplification (RCA) process. The tandem reassembly of split luciferase-DNA chimeras on the RCA products elicited a turn-on bioluminescence response with ultrahigh signal-to-background (S/B) ratio. This strategy enabled smartphone-based assays for different miRNAs with attomolar sensitivity and single-base specificity, as demonstrated here for miR-21. miR-148b, and cel-miR-39. Further application of our approach to the clinical serum samples realized identification of dysregulated miR-21 and miR-148b in the lung cancer patients, showing a satisfactory agreement with the control assays performed with quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Therefore, the developed method possesses the benefits of high performance and reliability, offering a potential tool for implementing miRNA-based diagnosis in point-of-care (POC) settings.

Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Biosensors for Point-of-Need Diagnosis-Progress and Perspectives

The demand for point-of-need (PON) diagnostics for clinical and other applications is continuing to grow. Much of this demand is currently serviced by biosensors, which combine a bioanalytical sensing element with a transducing device that reports results to the user. Ideally, such devices are easy to use and do not require special skills of the end user. Application-dependent, PON devices may need to be capable of measuring low levels of analytes very rapidly, and it is often helpful if they are also portable. To date, only two transduction modalities, colorimetric lateral flow immunoassays (LFIs) and electrochemical assays, fully meet these requirements and have been widely adopted at the point-of-need. These modalities are either non-quantitative (LFIs) or highly analyte-specific (electrochemical glucose meters), therefore requiring considerable modification if they are to be co-opted for measuring other biomarkers. Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (RET)-based biosensors incorporate a quantitative and highly versatile transduction modality that has been extensively used in biomedical research laboratories. RET-biosensors have not yet been applied at the point-of-need despite its advantages over other established techniques. In this review, we explore and discuss recent developments in the translation of RET-biosensors for PON diagnoses, including their potential benefits and drawbacks.

Creation of different bioluminescence resonance energy transfer based biosensors with high affinity to VEGF

In age-related macular degeneration (AMD) or diabetic retinopathy (DR), hypoxia and inflammatory processes lead to an upregulation of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and thereby to pathological neovascularisation with incorrectly formed vessels prone to damage, thus increasing the vascular permeability and the risk of bleeding and oedema in the retina. State of the art treatment is the repeated intraocular injection of anti-VEGF molecules. For developing improved individualized treatment approaches, a minimally invasive, repeatable method for in vivo quantification of VEGF in the eye is necessary. Therefore, we designed single molecule eBRET2 VEGF biosensors by directly fusing a Renilla luciferase mutant (Rluc8) N-terminal and a green fluorescent protein (GFP2) C-terminal to a VEGF binding domain. In total, 10 different VEGF biosensors (Re01- Re10) were generated based on either single domains or full length of VEGF receptor 1 or 2 extracellular regions as VEGF binding domains. Full length expression of the biosensors in HEK293-T cells was verified via Western Blot employing an anti-Rluc8-IgG. Expression of alternative splice variants was eliminated through the deletion of the donor splice site by introduction of a silent point mutation. In all ten biosensors the energy transfer from the Rluc8 to the GFP2 occurs and generates a measurable eBRET2 ratio. Four biosensors show a relevant change of the BRET ratio (ΔBR) after VEGF binding. Furthermore, each biosensor shows a unique detection range for VEGF quantification and especially Re06 and Re07 have a high sensitivity in the range of in vivo VEGF concentrations in the eye, previously measured by invasive methods. In conclusion, we generated several eBRET2 biosensors that are suitable for VEGF quantification in vitro and could identify two eBRET2 biosensors, which may be suitable for non-invasive in vivo VEGF quantification with an implantable device.

Self Assembled Recombinant Proteins on Metallic Nanoparticles As Bimodal Imaging Probes

Combining multiple modalities is at the center of developing new methods for sensing and imaging that are required for comprehensive understanding of events at the molecular level. Various imaging modalities have been developed using metallic nanoparticles owning to their exceptional physical and chemical properties. Due to their localized surface plasmon resonance characteristics, gold and silver nanoparticles exhibit unique optoelectronic properties commonly used in biomedical sciences and engineering. Self assembled monolayers or physical adsorption have previously been adapted to functionalize the surfaces of nanoparticles with biomolecules for targeted imaging. However, depending on differences among the functional groups used on the nanoparticle surface, wide variation in the displayed biomolecular property to recognize its target may result. In the last decade, the properties of inorganic binding peptides have been proven advantageous to assemble selective functional nano-entities or proteins onto nanoparticles surfaces. Herein we explored formation of self-assembled hybrid metallic nano-architectures that are composed of gold and silver nanoparticles with fluorescent proteins, for use as bimodal imaging probes. We employed metal binding peptide-based assembly to self assemble green fluorescence protein onto metallic substrates of various geometries. Assembly of the green fluorescent proteins, genetically engineered to incorporate gold- or silver-binding peptides onto metallic nanoparticles, resulted in the generation of hybrid-, biomodal-imaging probes in a single step. Green fluorescent activity on gold and silver surfaces can be been monitored using both plasmonic and fluorescent signatures. Our results demonstrate a novel bimodal imaging system that can be finely tuned with respect to nanoparticle size and protein concentration. Resulting hybrid probes may mitigate the limitation of depth penetration into biological tissues as well as providing high signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity.

Emerging Opportunities for Synthetic Biology in Agriculture

Rapid expansion in the emerging field of synthetic biology has to date mainly focused on the microbial sciences and human health. However, the zeitgeist is that synthetic biology will also shortly deliver major outcomes for agriculture. The primary industries of agriculture, fisheries and forestry, face significant and global challenges; addressing them will be assisted by the sector’s strong history of early adoption of transformative innovation, such as the genetic technologies that underlie synthetic biology. The implementation of synthetic biology within agriculture may, however, be hampered given the industry is dominated by higher plants and mammals, where large and often polyploid genomes and the lack of adequate tools challenge the ability to deliver outcomes in the short term. However, synthetic biology is a rapidly growing field, new techniques in genome design and synthesis, and more efficient molecular tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 may harbor opportunities more broadly than the development of new cultivars and breeds. In particular, the ability to use synthetic biology to engineer biosensors, synthetic speciation, microbial metabolic engineering, mammalian multiplexed CRISPR, novel anti microbials, and projects such as Yeast 2.0 all have significant potential to deliver transformative changes to agriculture in the short, medium and longer term. Specifically, synthetic biology promises to deliver benefits that increase productivity and sustainability across primary industries, underpinning the industry’s prosperity in the face of global challenges.

Rapid detection of Hendra virus antibodies: an integrated device with nanoparticle assay and chaotic micromixing

Current diagnosis of infectious diseases such as Hendra virus (HeV) relies mostly on laboratory-based tests. There is an urgent demand for rapid diagnosis technology to detect and identify these diseases in humans and animals so that disease spread can be controlled. In this study, an integrated lab-on-a-chip device using a magnetic nanoparticle immunoassay is developed. The key features of the device are the chaotic fluid mixing, achieved by magnetically driven motion of nanoparticles with the optimal mixing protocol developed using chaotic transport theory, and the automatic liquid handling system for loading reagents and samples. The device has been demonstrated to detect Hendra virus antibodies in dilute horse serum samples within a short time of 15 minutes and the limit of detection is about 0.48 ng ml^-1. The device platform can potentially be used for field detection of viruses and other biological and chemical substances.

Hydride generation-resonance Rayleigh scattering and SERS spectral determination of trace Bi

In acidic solutions, Bi(III) was reduced by NaBH4 to form BiH3 gas. Using I3(-)graphene oxide (GO) as absorption solution, the BiH3 gas reacted with I3(-) to form I(-) that resulted in the I3(-) concentration decreasing. In the absence of BiH3, the I3(-) concentration was high, and as receptors it was closed to the surfaces of GO which was as donors. Then the surface plasmon resonance Rayleigh scattering (RRS) energy of GO transfers to I3(-) heavily, and results in the RRS quenching severely. With the increase of the Bi(III) concentration, the receptors and the RRS energy transfer (RRS-ET) decreased, so the RRS intensity enhanced linearly at 370nm. The RRS intensity was linear to the Bi(III) concentration in 0.05-5.5μmol/L, with a detection limit of 4ng/mL Bi. A new RRS-ET spectral method was developed for the determination of trace Bi(III). Using I3(-) as the absorption solution, silver nanorod (AgNR) as sol substrate and Vitoria blue B (VBB) as molecular probe, a SERS method was developed for detection of Bi.

Quantification of the vascular endothelial growth factor with a bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) based single molecule biosensor

Neovascular pathologies in the eye like age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the diabetic retinopathie (DR), retinopathie of prematurity (ROP) or the retinal vein occlusion (RVO) are caused through a hypoxia induced upregulation of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). So far a correlation of intraocular VEGF concentrations to the impact of the pathologies is limited because of invasive sampling. Therefore, a minimally invasive, repeatable quantification of VEGF levels in the eye is needed to correlate the stage of VEGF induced pathologies as well as the efficacy of anti-VEGF treatment. Here we describe the development of three variants of enhanced BRET2 (eBRET2) based, single molecule biosensors by fusing a Renilla luciferase mutant with enhanced light output (RLuc8) to the N-terminus and a suitable eBRET2 acceptor fluorophore (GFP2) to the C-terminus of a VEGF binding domain, directly fused or separated with two different peptide linkers for the quantification of VEGF in vitro. The VEGF binding domain consists of a single chain variable fragment (scFv) based on ranibizumab in which the light- and the heavy- F(ab) chains were connected with a peptide linker to generate one open reading frame (orf). All three variants generate measureable eBRET2 ratios by transferring energy from the luciferase donor to the GFP2 acceptor, whereas only the directly fused and the proline variant permit VEGF quantification. The directly fused biosensor variant allows the quantification of VEGF with higher sensitivity, compared to the widely used ELISA systems and a wide dynamic quantification range in vitro. Our system demonstrates not only an additional in vitro application on VEGF quantification but also a promising step towards an applicable biosensor in an implantable device able to quantify VEGF reliably after implantation in vivo.

General Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer Homogeneous Immunoassay for Small Molecules Based on Quantum Dots

Here, we describe a general bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) homogeneous immunoassay based on quantum dots (QDs) as the acceptor and Renilla luciferase (Rluc) as the donor (QD-BRET) for the determination of small molecules. The ratio of the donor-acceptor that could produce energy transfer varied in the presence of different concentrations of free enrofloxacin (ENR), an important small molecule in food safety. The calculated Förster distance (R0) was 7.86 nm. Under optimized conditions, the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for ENR was less than 1 ng/mL and the linear range covered 4 orders of magnitude (0.023 to 25.60 ng/mL). The cross-reactivities (CRs) of seven representative fluoroquinolones (FQs) were similar to the data obtained by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The average intra- and interassay recoveries from spiked milk of were 79.8-118.0%, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were less than 10%, meeting the requirement of residue detection, which was a satisfactory result. Furthermore, we compared the influence of different luciferase substrates on the performance of the assay. Considering sensitivity and stability, coelenterazine-h was the most appropriate substrate. The results from this study will enable better-informed decisions on the choice of Rluc substrate for QD-BRET systems. For the future, the QD-BRET immunosensor could easily be extended to other small molecules and thus represents a versatile strategy in food safety, the environment, clinical diagnosis, and other fields.

Fluorescence-based bioassays for the detection and evaluation of food materials

We summarize here the recent progress in fluorescence-based bioassays for the detection and evaluation of food materials by focusing on fluorescent dyes used in bioassays and applications of these assays for food safety, quality and efficacy. Fluorescent dyes have been used in various bioassays, such as biosensing, cell assay, energy transfer-based assay, probing, protein/immunological assay and microarray/biochip assay. Among the arrays used in microarray/biochip assay, fluorescence-based microarrays/biochips, such as antibody/protein microarrays, bead/suspension arrays, capillary/sensor arrays, DNA microarrays/polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based arrays, glycan/lectin arrays, immunoassay/enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based arrays, microfluidic chips and tissue arrays, have been developed and used for the assessment of allergy/poisoning/toxicity, contamination and efficacy/mechanism, and quality control/safety. DNA microarray assays have been used widely for food safety and quality as well as searches for active components. DNA microarray-based gene expression profiling may be useful for such purposes due to its advantages in the evaluation of pathway-based intracellular signaling in response to food materials.