RETRACTED: A fluorescent molecularly-imprinted polymer gate with temperature and pH as inputs for detection of alpha-fetoprotein

Electrochemical immuno-biosensors for the detection of the tumor marker alpha-fetoprotein: A review

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a glycoprotein that has many important physiological functions, including transportation, immunosuppression, and induction of apoptosis by T lymphocytes. AFP is closely related to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma and many kinds of tumors, all of which can show high concentrations, so it is used as a positive test indicator for many kinds of tumors. This paper reviews recent advances in the detection of the tumor marker AFP based on three immuno-biosensors: electrochemical (EC), photoelectrochemical (PEC), and electrochemical luminescence (ECL). The electrodes are modified by different materials or homemade composites, different signaling molecules are selected as single probes or dual probes for the detection of AFP. The detection limit was as low as 3 fg/mL, which indicated that the AFP immunosensor had achieved highly sensitive detection. In addition, we also reviewed and summarized the current development status and application prospect of AFP immunoelectrochemical sensors. There are not too many researches on immunosensors based on dual-signal ratios, and the commonly used probes are methylene blue (MB) and ferrocene (Fc). It would be more innovative to have more novel signaling molecules as probes to prepare dual-signal ratio sensors.

Tumor diagnosis using carbon-based quantum dots: Detection based on the hallmarks of cancer

Carbon-based quantum dots (CQDs) have been shown to have promising application value in tumor diagnosis. Their use, however, is severely hindered by the complicated nature of the nanostructures in the CQDs. Furthermore, it seems impossible to formulate the mechanisms involved using the inadequate theoretical frameworks that are currently available for CQDs. In this review, we re-consider the structure-property relationships of CQDs and summarize the current state of development of CQDs-based tumor diagnosis based on biological theories that are fully developed. The advantages and deficiencies of recent research on CQDs-based tumor diagnosis are thus explained in terms of the manifestation of nine essential changes in cell physiology. This review makes significant progress in addressing related problems encountered with other nanomaterials.

Imprinted Polymers on the Route to Plastibodies for Biomacromolecules (MIPs), Viruses (VIPs), and Cells (CIPs)

Around 30% of the scientific papers published on imprinted polymers describe the recognition of proteins, nucleic acids, viruses, and cells. The straightforward synthesis from only one up to six functional monomers and the simple integration into a sensor are significant advantages as compared with enzymes or antibodies. Furthermore, they can be synthesized against toxic substances and structures of low immunogenicity and allow multi-analyte measurements via multi-template synthesis. The affinity is sufficiently high for protein biomarkers, DNA, viruses, and cells. However, the cross-reactivity of highly abundant proteins is still a challenge.

Nanocellulose as a promising substrate for advanced sensors and their applications

Nanocellulose has broad and promising applications owing to its low density, large specific surface area, high mechanical strength, modifiability, renewability. Recently, nanocellulose has been widely used to fabricate flexible, durable and environmental-friendly sensor substrates. In this contribution, the construction and characteristics of nanocellulose-based sensors are comprehensively reviewed. Various nanocellulose-based sensors are summarized and divided into colorimetric, fluorescent, electronic, electrochemical and SERS types according to the sensing mechanism. This review also introduces the applications of nanocellulose-based sensors in the fields of biomedicine, environmental monitoring, food safety, and wearable devices.

Fluorescent and colorimetric determination of glutathione based on the inner filter effect between silica nanoparticle-gold nanocluster nanocomposites and oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine

Determination of glutathione (GSH) is closely related to the clinical diagnosis of many diseases. Thus, a fluorescent and colorimetric dual-readout strategy for the sensitive determination of glutathione was proposed. The mesoporous silica nanoparticle-gold nanocluster (MSN-AuNC) nanocomposites with significantly enhanced emission and effectively improved photostability characteristics were used as fluorescent probes. Based on the inner filter effect (IFE), the fluorescence of MSN-AuNCs at 570 nm can be effectively quenched by oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (oxTMB) with absorption in the wavelength ranges of 330-470 nm and 500-750 nm. However, the addition of GSH could cause the reduction of blue oxTMB to colorless TMB, resulting in the inhibition of IFE and the recovery of the fluorescence of MSN-AuNCs. Therefore, using oxTMB as both quencher and color indicator, a dual-readout oxTMB/MSN-AuNC sensing system for the sensitive determination of GSH was constructed. As signal amplification is caused by the fluorescence enhancement of MSN-AuNCs, the detection limits as low as 0.12 μM and 0.34 μM can be obtained for fluorescent and colorimetric assay, respectively. This method may not only offer a new idea for the sensitive and effective determination of GSH, but also broaden the applications of AuNCs in fluorescent and colorimetric dual-readout bioanalysis.

Semiconductor nanocrystal-polymer hybrid nanomaterials and their application in molecular imprinting

Quantum dots (QDs) are attractive semiconductor fluorescent nanomaterials with remarkable optical and electrical properties. The broad absorption spectra and high stability of QD transducers are advantageous for sensing and bioimaging. Molecular imprinting is a technique for manufacturing synthetic polymeric materials with a high recognition ability towards a target analyte. The high selectivity of the molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) is a result of the fabrication process based on the template-tailored polymerization of functional monomers. The three-dimensional cavities formed in the polymer network can serve as the recognition elements of sensors because of their specificity and stability. Appending specific molecularly imprinted layers to QDs is a promising strategy to enhance the stability, sensitivity, and selective fluorescence response of the resulting sensors. By merging the benefits of MIPs and QDs, inventive optical sensors are constructed. In this review, the recent synthetic strategies used for the fabrication of QD nanocrystals emphasizing various approaches to effective functionalization in aqueous environments are discussed followed by a detailed presentation of current advances in QD conjugated MIPs (MIP-QDs). Frontiers in manufacturing of specific imprinted layers of these nanomaterials are presented and factors affecting the specific behaviour of an MIP shell are identified. Finally, current limitations of MIP-QDs are defined and prospects are outlined to amplify the capability of MIP-QDs in future sensing.

A biomimetic fluorescent nanosensor based on imprinted polymers modified with carbon dots for sensitive detection of alpha-fetoprotein in clinical samples

A biomimetic fluorescent nanosensor based on molecularly imprinted polymers modified with carbon dots (CDs@MIPs) has been prepared for rapid, selective and sensitive detection of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) in clinical samples.

Key Enabling Technologies for Point-of-Care Diagnostics

A major trend in biomedical engineering is the development of reliable, self-contained point-of-care (POC) devices for diagnostics and in-field assays. The new generation of such platforms increasingly addresses the clinical and environmental needs. Moreover, they are becoming more and more integrated with everyday objects, such as smartphones, and their spread among unskilled common people, has the power to improve the quality of life, both in the developed world and in low-resource settings. The future success of these tools will depend on the integration of the relevant key enabling technologies on an industrial scale (microfluidics with microelectronics, highly sensitive detection methods and low-cost materials for easy-to-use tools). Here, recent advances and perspectives will be reviewed across the large spectrum of their applications.

Molecular Imprinting Based Hybrid Ratiometric Fluorescence Sensor for the Visual Determination of Bovine Hemoglobin

We describe a simple and effective strategy to construct a molecular imprinting ratiometric fluorescence sensor (MIR sensor) for the visual detection of bovine hemoglobin (BHb) used as a model protein. The sensor was prepared by simply mixing the solution of green and red CdTe quantum dots (QDs), which were embedded in core-shell structured molecularly imprinted polymers and silica nanoparticles, respectively. The resultant hybrid MIR sensor can selectively bind with BHb and thus quench the fluorescence of the green QDs, while the red QDs wrapped with silica are insensitive to BHb with the fluorescence intensity unchanged. As a result, a continuous obvious fluorescence color change from green to red can be observed by naked eyes, with the detection limit of 9.6 nM. Moreover, the MIR sensor was successfully applied to determine BHb in bovine urine samples with satisfactory recoveries at three spiking levels ranging from 95.7 to 101.5%, indicating great potential application for detecting BHb in real samples. This strategy of using different fluorescence emission materials incorporated to construct a ratiometric fluorescence sensor is reasonable and convenient, which can be extended to the preparation of other ratiometric fluorescence systems for targeted analytes.

WS2 nanosheets-sensitized CdS quantum dots heterostructure for photoelectrochemical immunoassay of alpha-fetoprotein coupled with enzyme-mediated biocatalytic precipitation

A sensitive photoelectrochemical immunoassay for AFP was developed via signal enhancement of WS₂/CdS heterojunction and signal quenching of enzyme-mediated biocatalytic precipitation.

Ultraviolet light-, temperature- and pH-responsive fluorescent sensors based on cellulose nanocrystals

Intelligent CNC-g-P(AzoC₆MA-co-DMAEMA) fluorescent nanosensors present ultraviolet light-, temperature- and pH-responsive properties.

Fabrication of micron-sized BSA-imprinted polymers with outstanding adsorption capacity based on poly(glycidyl methacrylate)/polystyrene (PGMA/PS) anisotropic microspheres

Monodisperse poly(glycidyl methacrylate)/polystyrene (PGMA/PS) anisotropic microspheres have been fabricated by seed polymerization for BSA-imprinting microspheres.

Self-cleaned electrochemical protein imprinting biosensor basing on a thermo-responsive memory hydrogel

Herein, the self-cleaned electrochemical protein imprinting biosensor basing on a thermo-responsive memory hydrogel was constructed on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) with a free radical polymerization method. Combining the advantages of thermo-responsive molecular imprinted polymers and electrochemistry, the resulted biosensor presents a novel self-cleaned ability for bovine serum albumin (BSA) in aqueous media. As a temperature controlled gate, the hydrogel film undergoes the adsorption and desorption of BSA basing on a reversible structure change with the external temperature stimuli. In particular, these processes have been revealed by the response of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of electroactive [Fe(CN)₆]^3-/4-. The results have been supported by the evidences of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and contact angles measurements. Under the optimal conditions, a wide detection range from 0.02μmolL^-1 to 10μmolL^-1 with a detection limit of 0.012 μmolL^-1 (S/N = 3) was obtained for BSA. This proposed BSA sensor also possesses high selectivity, excellent stability, acceptable recovery and good reproducibility in its practical applications.

A Fe3O4@Au-basedpseudo-homogeneous electrochemical immunosensor for AFP measurement using AFP antibody-GNPs-HRP as detection probe

In this study, a Fe₃O₄@Au-based pseudo-homogeneous electrochemical immunosensor was prepared for detection of alpha fetoprotein (AFP), a well-known hepatocellular carcinoma biomarker. The primary antibody (Ab1) was immobilized on Fe₃O₄@Au NPs as the capture probe. Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and secondary antibody (Ab2) were conjugated on gold nanoparticles (GNPs) through electrostatic adsorption to form signal-amplifying labels. In the presence of AFP, a sandwich immunocomplex was formed via specific recognition of antigen-antibody in a Fe₃O₄@Au-basedpseudo-homogeneousreaction system. After the immunocomplex was captured to the surface of magnetic glassy carbon electrode (MGCE), the labeling HRP catalyzed the decomposition of H₂O₂, resulting in a substantial current for the quantitative detection of AFP. The amperometric (i-t) method was employed to record the response signal of the immunosensor based on the catalysis of the immobilized HRP toward the reduction of H₂O₂ with hydroquinone (HQ) as the redox mediator. Under the optimal conditions, the amperometric current response presented a linear relationship with AFP concentration over the range of 20 ng/mL-100 ng/mLwith a correlation coefficient of 0.9940, and the detection limit was 0.64 ng/mL at signal/noise [S/N] = 3. Moreover, the electrochemical immunosensor exhibited higher anti-interference ability, acceptable reproducibility and long-term stability for AFP detection.

MIP-Based Sensors: Promising New Tools for Cancer Biomarker Determination

Detecting cancer disease at an early stage is one of the most important issues for increasing the survival rate of patients. Cancer biomarker detection helps to provide a diagnosis before the disease becomes incurable in later stages. Biomarkers can also be used to evaluate the progression of therapies and surgery treatments. In recent years, molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) based sensors have been intensely investigated as promising analytical devices in several fields, including clinical analysis, offering desired portability, fast response, specificity, and low cost. The aim of this review is to provide readers with an overview on recent important achievements in MIP-based sensors coupled to various transducers (e.g., electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric) for the determination of cancer biomarkers by selected publications from 2012 to 2016.

A battle between spherical and cube-shaped Ag/AgCl nanoparticle modified imprinted polymer to achieve femtogram detection of alpha-feto protein

In this work, a sensitive and selective molecularly imprinted polymer modified electrochemical sensor was developed for the detection of the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) biomarker, alpha feto protein (AFP) on the surface of specifically designed Ag/AgCl nanoparticles. Herein, for the first time, the effect of the shape of nanoparticles on the behavior of an imprinted polymer was studied using cube- and spherical-shaped Ag/AgCl nanoparticles. It was found that cube-shaped nanoparticles have high surface to volume ratios and higher electrocatalytic activity, and are, therefore, a suitable platform for the synthesis of imprinted polymers. Herein, we have demonstrated how a change in the morphology of the nanomaterials can affect the electrochemical and adsorption properties of an imprinted polymer towards the target analyte (here, AFP). A cube-shaped nanoparticle@imprinted polymer was used for the fabrication of the electrochemical sensor, the analytical performance of which was shown, by a square wave stripping voltammetric technique, to be good for the detection of AFP. The current response of the electrochemical sensor was linear for AFP concentrations in the range from 0.10 to 700.0 pg mL-1, with an ultra trace detection limit of 24.6 fg mL-1. This sensor offers high selectivity, sensitivity, simplicity and clinical applicability for AFP determination in human blood serum, plasma, and urine, without using antibodies or any biological components, this has not been reported for previously reported systems. The proposed sensor has the potential to be used as an alternative to the commercially available, costly, sophisticated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits for AFP determination.

Facile synthesis of cuprous oxide nanowires decorated graphene oxide nanosheets nanocomposites and its application in label-free electrochemical immunosensor

In this work, the assembly between one-dimensional (1D) nanomaterials and two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials was achieved by a simple method. Cuprous oxide nanowires decorated graphene oxide nanosheets (Cu₂O@GO) nanocomposites were synthesized for the first time by a simple electrostatic self-assembly process. The nanostructure was well confirmed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) images. Taking advantages of good electrocatalytic activity and high specific surface area of Cu₂O@GO nanocomposites, a label-free electrochemical immunosensor was developed by employing Cu₂O@GO as signal amplification platform for the quantitative detection of alpha fetoprotein (AFP). In addition, toluidine blue (TB) was used as the electron transfer mediator to provide the electrochemical signal, which was adsorbed on graphene oxide nanosheets (GO NSs) by electrostatic attraction. The detection mechanism was based on the monitoring of the electrochemical current response change of TB by the square wave voltammetry (SWV) when immunoreaction occurred on the surface of electrode. Under optimal conditions, the proposed immunosensor displayed a high sensitivity and a low detection limit. This designed method may provide an effective method in the clinical diagnosis of AFP and other tumor markers.

Introduction of selectivity and specificity to graphene using an inimitable combination of molecular imprinting and nanotechnology

Recently, the nanostructured modified molecularly imprinting polymer has created a great attention in research field due to its excellent properties such as high surface to volume ratio, low cost, and easy preparation/handling. Among the nanostructured materials, the carbonaceous material such as 'graphene' has attracted the tremendous attention of researchers owing to their fascinating electrical, thermal and physical properties. In this review article, we have tried to explore as well as compile the role of graphene-based nanomaterials in the fabrication of imprinted polymers. In other words, herein the recent efforts made to introduce selectivity in graphene-based nanomaterials were tried collected together. The major concern of this review article is focused on the sensing devices fabricated via a combination of graphene, graphene@nanoparticles, graphene@carbon nanotubes and molecularly imprinted polymers. Additionally, the combination of graphene and quantum dots was also included to explore the fluorescence properties of zero-band-gap graphene.