Alternative biological sources for extracellular vesicles production and purification strategies for process scale-up

Food-derived vesicles as immunomodulatory drivers: Current knowledge, gaps, and perspectives

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bound membrane vesicles released from cells, containing active compounds, which can be found in different foods. In this review, the role of food-derived vesicles (FDVs) as immunomodulatory drivers is summarized, with a focus on sources, isolation techniques and yields, as well as bioavailability and potential health implications. In addition, gaps and perspectives detected in this research field have been highlighted. FDVs have been efficiently extracted from different sources, and differential ultracentrifugation seems to be the most adequate isolation technique, with yields ranging from 108 to 1014 EV particles/mL. Animal studies show promising results in how these FDVs might regulate different pathways related to inflammation. Further investigation on the production of stable components in a cost-effective way, as well as human studies demonstrating safety and health-promoting properties, since scarce information has been reported until now, in the context of modulating the immune system are needed.

Role of aptamer technology in extracellular vesicle biology and therapeutic applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived nanosized membrane-bound vesicles that are important intercellular signalling regulators in local cell-to-cell and distant cell-to-tissue communication. Their inherent capacity to transverse cell membranes and transfer complex bioactive cargo reflective of their cell source, as well as their ability to be modified through various engineering and modification strategies, have attracted significant therapeutic interest. Molecular bioengineering strategies are providing a new frontier for EV-based therapy, including novel mRNA vaccines, antigen cross-presentation and immunotherapy, organ delivery and repair, and cancer immune surveillance and targeted therapeutics. The revolution of EVs, their diversity as biocarriers and their potential to contribute to intercellular communication, is well understood and appreciated but is ultimately dependent on the development of methods and techniques for their isolation, characterization and enhanced targeting. As single-stranded oligonucleotides, aptamers, also known as chemical antibodies, offer significant biological, chemical, economic, and therapeutic advantages in terms of their size, selectivity, versatility, and multifunctional programming. Their integration into the field of EVs has been contributing to the development of isolation, detection, and analysis pipelines associated with bioengineering strategies for nano-meets-molecular biology, thus translating their use for therapeutic and diagnostic utility.

Extracellular Vesicle Preparation and Analysis: A State-of-the-Art Review

In recent decades, research on Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) has gained prominence in the life sciences due to their critical roles in both health and disease states, offering promising applications in disease diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy. However, their inherent heterogeneity and complex origins pose significant challenges to their preparation, analysis, and subsequent clinical application. This review is structured to provide an overview of the biogenesis, composition, and various sources of EVs, thereby laying the groundwork for a detailed discussion of contemporary techniques for their preparation and analysis. Particular focus is given to state-of-the-art technologies that employ both microfluidic and non-microfluidic platforms for EV processing. Furthermore, this discourse extends into innovative approaches that incorporate artificial intelligence and cutting-edge electrochemical sensors, with a particular emphasis on single EV analysis. This review proposes current challenges and outlines prospective avenues for future research. The objective is to motivate researchers to innovate and expand methods for the preparation and analysis of EVs, fully unlocking their biomedical potential.

Bioengineering extracellular vesicle cargo for optimal therapeutic efficiency

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have the innate ability to carry proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids between cells, and thus these vesicles have gained much attention as potential therapeutic delivery vehicles. Many strategies have been explored to enhance the loading of specific cargoes of interest into EVs, which could result in the delivery of more therapeutic to recipient cells, thus enhancing therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we discuss the natural biogenesis of EVs, the mechanism by which proteins and nucleic acids are selected for inclusion in EVs, and novel methods that have been employed to enhance loading of specific cargoes into EVs. As well, we discuss biodistribution of administered EVs in vivo and summarize clinical trials that have attempted to harness the therapeutic potential of EVs.

Urinary extracellular vesicle-derived miR-126-3p predicts lymph node invasion in patients with high-risk prostate cancer

To investigate extracellular vesicles (EVs), biomarkers for predicting lymph node invasion (LNI) in patients with high-risk prostate cancer (HRPCa), plasma, and/or urine samples were prospectively collected from 45 patients with prostate cancer (PCa) and five with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Small RNA sequencing was performed to identify miRNAs in the EVs. All patients with PCa underwent radical prostatectomy and extended pelvic lymph node dissection. Differentially expressed miRNAs were identified in patients with and without pathologically-verified LNI. The candidate miRNAs were validated in low-risk prostate cancer (LRPCa) and BPH. Four miRNA species (e.g., miR-126-3p) and three miRNA species (e.g., miR-27a-3p) were more abundant in urinary and plasma EVs, respectively, of patients with PCa. None of these miRNA species were shared between urinary and plasma EVs. miR-126-3p was significantly more abundant in patients with HR PCa with LNI than in those without (P = 0.018). miR-126-3p was significantly more abundant in the urinary EVs of patients with HRPCa than in those with LRPCa (P = 0.017) and BPH (P = 0.011). In conclusion, urinary EVs-derived miR-126-3p may serve as a good biomarker for predicting LNI in patients with HRPCa.

Mammalian Cell Membrane Hybrid Polymersomes for mRNA Delivery

Cell membranes are structures essential to the cell function and adaptation. Recent studies have targeted cell membranes to identify their protective and interactive properties. Leveraging these attributes of cellular membranes and their application to vaccine delivery is gaining increasing prominence. This study aimed to fuse synthetic polymeric nanoparticles with cell membranes to develop cell membrane hybrid polymersomes (HyPSomes) for enhanced vaccine delivery. We designed a platform to hybridize cell membranes with methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-polylactic acid nanoparticles by using the properties of both components. The formed HyPSomes were optimized by using dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and Förster resonance energy transfer, and their stability was confirmed. The synthesized HyPSomes replicated the antigenic surface of the source cells and possessed the stability and efficacy of synthetic nanoparticles. These HyPSomes demonstrated enhanced cellular uptake and translation efficiency and facilitated endosome escape. HyPSomes showed outstanding capabilities for the delivery of foreign mRNAs to antigen-presenting cells. HyPSomes may serve as vaccine delivery systems by bridging the gap between synthetic and natural systems. These systems could be used in other contexts, e.g., diagnostics and drug delivery.

Urinary extracellular vesicle-derived miR-126-3p predicts lymph node invasion in patients with high-risk prostate cancer

To investigate extracellular vesicles (EVs) biomarkers for predicting lymph node invasion (LNI) in patients with high-risk prostate cancer (HRPCa), plasma and/or urine samples were prospectively collected from 45 patients with prostate cancer (PCa) and five with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Small RNA sequencing was performed to identify miRNAs in the EVs. All patients with PCa underwent radical prostatectomy and extended pelvic lymph node dissection. Differentially-expressed miRNAs were identified in patients with and without pathologically-verified LNI. The candidate miRNAs were validated in low-risk prostate cancer (LRPCa) and BPH. Four miRNA species (e.g. miR-126-3p) and three miRNA species (e.g. miR-27a-3p) were more abundant in urinary and plasma EVs, respectively, of patients with PCa. None of these miRNA species were shared between urinary and plasma EVs. miR-126-3p was significantly more abundant in patients with HR PCa with LNI than in those without (P = 0.018). miR-126-3p was significantly more abundant in the urinary EVs of patients with HRPCa than in those with LRPCa (P = 0.017) and BPH (P = 0.011). In conclusion, urinary EVs-derived miR-126-3p may serve as a good biomarker for predicting LNI in patients with HRPCa.

Exosome-mediated communication between gastric cancer cells and macrophages: implications for tumor microenvironment

Gastric cancer (GC) is a malignant neoplasm originating from the epithelial cells of the gastric mucosa. The pathogenesis of GC is intricately linked to the tumor microenvironment within which the cancer cells reside. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) primarily differentiate from peripheral blood monocytes and can be broadly categorized into M1 and M2 subtypes. M2-type TAMs have been shown to promote tumor growth, tissue remodeling, and angiogenesis. Furthermore, they can actively suppress acquired immunity, leading to a poorer prognosis and reduced tolerance to chemotherapy. Exosomes, which contain a myriad of biologically active molecules including lipids, proteins, mRNA, and noncoding RNAs, have emerged as key mediators of communication between tumor cells and TAMs. The exchange of these molecules via exosomes can markedly influence the tumor microenvironment and consequently impact tumor progression. Recent studies have elucidated a correlation between TAMs and various clinicopathological parameters of GC, such as tumor size, differentiation, infiltration depth, lymph node metastasis, and TNM staging, highlighting the pivotal role of TAMs in GC development and metastasis. In this review, we aim to comprehensively examine the bidirectional communication between GC cells and TAMs, the implications of alterations in the tumor microenvironment on immune escape, invasion, and metastasis in GC, targeted therapeutic approaches for GC, and the efficacy of potential GC drug resistance strategies.

Challenges and Promise for Glioblastoma Treatment through Extracellular Vesicle Inquiry

Glioblastoma (GB) is a rare but extremely aggressive brain tumor that significantly impacts patient outcomes, affecting both duration and quality of life. The protocol established by Stupp and colleagues in 2005, based on radiotherapy and chemotherapy with Temozolomide, following maximum safe surgical resection remains the gold standard for GB treatment; however, it is evident nowadays that the extreme intratumoral and intertumoral heterogeneity, as well as the invasiveness and tendency to recur, of GB are not compatible with a routine and unfortunately ineffective treatment. This review article summarizes the main challenges in the search for new valuable therapies for GB and focuses on the impact that extracellular vesicle (EV) research and exploitation may have in the field. EVs are natural particles delimited by a lipidic bilayer and filled with functional cellular content that are released and uptaken by cells as key means of cell communication. Furthermore, EVs are stable in body fluids and well tolerated by the immune system, and are able to cross physiological, interspecies, and interkingdom barriers and to target specific cells, releasing inherent or externally loaded functionally active molecules. Therefore, EVs have the potential to be ideal allies in the fight against GB and to improve the prognosis for GB patients. The present work describes the main preclinical results obtained so far on the use of EVs for GB treatment, focusing on both the EV sources and molecular cargo used in the various functional studies, primarily in vivo. Finally, a SWOT analysis is performed, highlighting the main advantages and pitfalls of developing EV-based GB therapeutic strategies. The analysis also suggests the main directions to explore to realize the possibility of exploiting EVs for the treatment of GB.

Advances in Extracellular Vesicle Research Over the Past Decade: Source and Isolation Method are Connected with Cargo and Function

The evolution of extracellular vesicle (EV) research has introduced nanotechnology into biomedical cell communication science while recognizing what is formerly considered cell "dust" as constituting an entirely new universe of cell signaling particles. To display the global EV research landscape, a systematic review of 20 364 original research articles selected from all 40 684 EV-related records identified in PubMed 2013-2022 is performed. Machine-learning is used to categorize the high-dimensional data and further dissected significant associations between EV source, isolation method, cargo, and function. Unexpected correlations between these four categories indicate prevalent experimental strategies based on cargo connectivity with function of interest being associated with certain EV sources or isolation strategies. Conceptually relevant association of size-based EV isolation with protein cargo and uptake function will guide strategic conclusions enhancing future EV research and product development. Based on this study, an open-source database is built to facilitate further analysis with conventional or AI tools to identify additional causative associations of interest.

Immunoregulatory functions and therapeutic potential of natural killer cell-derived extracellular vesicles in chronic diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been proven to play a significant immunoregulatory role in many chronic diseases, such as cancer and immune disorders. Among them, EVs derived from NK cells are an essential component of the immune cell functions. These EVs have been demonstrated to carry a variety of toxic proteins and nucleic acids derived from NK cells and play a therapeutic role in diseases like malignancies, liver fibrosis, and lung injury. However, natural NK-derived EVs (NKEVs) have certain limitations in disease treatment, such as low yield and poor targeting. Concurrently, NK cells exhibit characteristics of memory-like NK cells, which have stronger proliferative capacity, increased IFN-γ production, and enhanced cytotoxicity, making them more advantageous for disease treatment. Recent research has shifted its focus towards engineered extracellular vesicles and their potential to improve the efficiency, specificity, and safety of disease treatments. In this review, we will discuss the characteristics of NK-derived EVs and the latest advancements in disease therapy. Specifically, we will compare different cellular sources of NKEVs and explore the current status and prospects of memory-like NK cell-derived EVs and engineered NKEVs.

Advances in separation and identification of biologically important milk proteins and peptides

Milk is a rich source of biologically important proteins and peptides. In addition, milk contains a variety of extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, that carry their own proteome cargo. EVs are essential for cell-cell communication and modulation of biological processes. They act as nature carriers of bioactive proteins/peptides in targeted delivery during various physiological and pathological conditions. Identification of the proteins and protein-derived peptides in milk and EVs and recognition of their biological activities and functions had a tremendous impact on food industry, medicine research, and clinical applications. Advanced separation methods, mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic approaches and innovative biostatistical procedures allowed for characterization of milk protein isoforms, genetic/splice variants, posttranslational modifications and their key roles, and contributed to novel discoveries. This review article discusses recently published developments in separation and identification of bioactive proteins/peptides from milk and milk EVs, including MS-based proteomic approaches.

Therapeutic potential of plant-derived extracellular vesicles as nanocarriers for exogenous miRNAs

Cell-to-cell communication strategies include extracellular vesicles (EVs) in plants and animals. The bioactive molecules in a diet rich in vegetables and fruits are associated with disease-preventive effects. Plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) are biogenetically and morphologically comparable to mammalian EVs and transport bioactive molecules, including miRNAs. However, the biological functions of PDEVs are not fully understood, and standard isolation protocols are lacking. Here, PDEVs were isolated from four foods with a combination of ultracentrifugation and size exclusion chromatography, and evaluated as vehicles for enhanced transport of synthetic miRNAs. In addition, the role of food-derived EVs as carriers of dietary (poly)phenols and other secondary metabolites was investigated. EVs from broccoli, pomegranate, apple, and orange were efficiently isolated and characterized. In all four sources, 4 miRNA families were present in tissues and EVs. miRNAs present in broccoli and fruit-derived EVs showed a reduced RNase degradation and were ferried inside exposed cells. EVs transfected with a combination of ath-miR159a, ath-miR162a-3p, ath-miR166b-3p, and ath-miR396b-5p showed toxic effects on human cells, as did natural broccoli EVs alone. PDEVs transport trace amounts of phytochemicals, including flavonoids, anthocyanidins, phenolic acids, or glucosinolates. Thus, PDEVs can act as nanocarriers for functional miRNAs that could be used in RNA-based therapy.

Pathological and Therapeutic Significance of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Cell Migration and Metastasis

The infiltration of primary tumors and metastasis formation at distant sites strongly impact the prognosis and the quality of life of cancer patients. Current therapies including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are limited in targeting the complex cell migration mechanisms responsible for cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis. A better understanding of these mechanisms and the development of new therapies are urgently needed. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-enveloped particles involved in inter-tissue and inter-cell communication. This review article focuses on the impact of EVs released by tumor cells, specifically on cancer cell migration and metastasis. We first introduce cell migration processes and EV subtypes, and we give an overview of how tumor-derived EVs (TDEVs) may impact cancer cell migration. Then, we discuss ongoing EV-based cancer therapeutic approaches, including the inhibition of general EV-related mechanisms as well as the use of EVs for anti-cancer drug delivery, focusing on the harnessing of TDEVs. We propose a protein-EV shuttle as a route alternative to secretion or cell membrane binding, influencing downstream signaling and the final effect on target cells, with strong implications in tumorigenesis. Finally, we highlight the pitfalls and limitations of therapeutic EV exploitation that must be overcome to realize the promise of EVs for cancer therapy.

PIWI-RNAs Small Noncoding RNAs with Smart Functions: Potential Theranostic Applications in Cancer

P-element-induced wimpy testis (PIWI)-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) are a new class of small noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) that bind components of the PIWI protein family. piRNAs are specifically expressed in different human tissues and regulate important signaling pathways. Aberrant expressions of piRNAs and PIWI proteins have been associated with tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Recent studies reported that piRNAs are contained in extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanosized lipid particles, with key roles in cell-cell communication. EVs contain several bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, including emerging ncRNAs. EVs are one of the components of liquid biopsy (LB) a non-invasive method for detecting specific molecular biomarkers in liquid samples. LB could become a crucial tool for cancer diagnosis with piRNAs as biomarkers in a precision oncology approach. This review summarizes the current findings on the roles of piRNAs in different cancer types, focusing on potential theranostic applications of piRNAs contained in EVs (EV-piRNAs). Their roles as non-invasive diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and as new therapeutic options have been also discussed.

A Review of Extracellular Vesicles in COVID-19 Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

The 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is ongoing, and has necessitated scientific efforts in disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Interestingly, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been crucial in these developments. EVs are a collection of various nanovesicles which are delimited by a lipid bilayer. They are enriched in proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites, and naturally released from different cells. Their natural material transport properties, inherent long-term recycling ability, excellent biocompatibility, editable targeting, and inheritance of parental cell properties make EVs one of the most promising next-generation drug delivery nanocarriers and active biologics. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many efforts have been made to exploit the payload of natural EVs for the treatment of COVID-19. Furthermore, strategies that use engineered EVs to manufacture vaccines and neutralization traps have produced excellent efficacy in animal experiments and clinical trials. Here, the recent literature on the application of EVs in COVID-19 diagnosis, treatment, damage repair, and prevention is reviewed. And the therapeutic value, application strategies, safety, and biotoxicity in the production and clinical applications of EV agents for COVID-19 treatment, as well as inspiration for using EVs to block and eliminate novel viruses are discussed.