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Mohamed SM, Abou-Ghadir OMF, El-Mokhtar MA, Aboraia AS, Abdel Aal ABM. Fatty Acid Conjugated Chalcones as Tubulin Polymerization Inhibitors: Design, Synthesis, QSAR, and Apoptotic and Antiproliferative Activity. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2023; 86:1150-1158. [PMID: 37098901 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is often associated with an aberrant increase in tubulin and microtubule activity required for cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. A new series of fatty acid conjugated chalcones have been designed as tubulin polymerization inhibitors and anticancer candidates. These conjugates were designed to harness the beneficial physicochemical properties, ease of synthesis, and tubulin inhibitory activity of two classes of natural components. New lipidated chalcones were synthesized from 4-aminoacetophenone via N-acylation followed by condensation with different aromatic aldehydes. All new compounds showed strong inhibition of tubulin polymerization and antiproliferative activity against breast and lung cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and A549) at low or sub-micromolar concentrations. A significant apoptotic effect was shown using a flow cytometry assay that corresponded to cytotoxicity against cancer cell lines, as indicated by a 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay. Decanoic acid conjugates were more potent than longer lipid analogues, with the most active being more potent than the reference tubulin inhibitor, combretastatin-A4 and the anticancer drug, doxorubicin. None of the newly synthesized compounds caused any detectable cytotoxicity against the normal cell line (Wi-38) or hemolysis of red blood cells below 100 μM. It is unlikely that the new conjugates described would affect normal cells or interrupt with cell membranes due to their lipidic nature. A quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis was performed to determine the influence of 315 descriptors of the physicochemical properties of the new conjugates on their tubulin inhibitory activity. The obtained model revealed a strong correlation between the tubulin inhibitory activity of the investigated compounds and their dipole moment and degree of reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samia M Mohamed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | - Ola M Fahmy Abou-Ghadir
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A El-Mokhtar
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Ahmed S Aboraia
- Department of Therapeutic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | - Abu-Baker M Abdel Aal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim 35900, Perak, Malaysia
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2
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Bartlett S, Skwarczynski M, Toth I. Lipids as Activators of Innate Immunity in Peptide Vaccine Delivery. Curr Med Chem 2020; 27:2887-2901. [PMID: 30362416 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666181026100849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Innate immune system plays an important role in pathogen detection and the recognition of vaccines, mainly through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that identify pathogen components (danger signals). One of the typically recognised bacterial components are lipids in conjugation with peptides, proteins and saccharides. Lipidic compounds are readily recognised by the immune system, and thus are ideal candidates for peptide- based vaccine delivery. Thus, bacterial or synthetic lipids mixed with, or conjugated to, antigens have shown adjuvant properties. These systems have many advantages over traditional adjuvants, including low toxicity and good efficacy for stimulating mucosal and systemic immune responses. METHODS The most recent literature on the role of lipids in stimulation of immune responses was selected for this review. The vast majority of reviewed papers were published in the last decade. Older but significant findings are also cited. RESULTS This review focuses on the development of lipopeptide vaccine systems including application of palmitic acid, bacterial lipopeptides, glycolipids and the lipid core peptide and their routes of administration. The use of liposomes as a delivery system that incorporates lipopeptides is discussed. The review also includes a brief description of immune system in relation to vaccinology and discussion on vaccine delivery routes. CONCLUSION Lipids and their conjugates are an ideal frontrunner in the development of safe and efficient vaccines for different immunisation routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey Bartlett
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Mariusz Skwarczynski
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Istvan Toth
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.,The University of Queensland, School of Pharmacy, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia.,The University of Queensland, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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3
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Azuar A, Jin W, Mukaida S, Hussein WM, Toth I, Skwarczynski M. Recent Advances in the Development of Peptide Vaccines and Their Delivery Systems Against Group A Streptococcus. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:E58. [PMID: 31266253 PMCID: PMC6789462 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7030058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infection can cause a variety of diseases in humans, ranging from common sore throats and skin infections, to more invasive diseases and life-threatening post-infectious diseases, such as rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Although research has been ongoing since 1923, vaccines against GAS are still not available to the public. Traditional approaches taken to develop vaccines for GAS failed due to poor efficacy and safety. Fortunately, headway has been made and modern subunit vaccines that administer minimal bacterial components provide an opportunity to finally overcome previous hurdles in GAS vaccine development. This review details the major antigens and strategies used for GAS vaccine development. The combination of antigen selection, peptide epitope modification and delivery systems have resulted in the discovery of promising peptide vaccines against GAS; these are currently in preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armira Azuar
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Wanli Jin
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Saori Mukaida
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Waleed M Hussein
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Helwan, Cairo 11795, Egypt
| | - Istvan Toth
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, Woolloongabba, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
- Institute of Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Mariusz Skwarczynski
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Nörrlinger M, Ziegler T. Synthesis of aromatic glycoconjugates. Building blocks for the construction of combinatorial glycopeptide libraries. Beilstein J Org Chem 2014; 10:2453-60. [PMID: 25383116 PMCID: PMC4222372 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.10.256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
New aromatic glycoconjugate building blocks based on the trifunctional 3-aminomethyl-5-aminobenzoic acid backbone and sugars linked to the backbone by a malonyl moiety were prepared via peptide coupling. The orthogonally protected glycoconjugates, bearing an acetyl-protected glycoside, were converted into their corresponding acids which are suitable building blocks for combinatorial glycopeptide synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Nörrlinger
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Tuebingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 18, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Ziegler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Tuebingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 18, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
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5
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Hsieh HW, Schombs MW, Witschi MA, Gervay-Hague J. Regioselective silyl/acetate exchange of disaccharides yields advanced glycosyl donor and acceptor precursors. J Org Chem 2013; 78:9677-88. [PMID: 23980653 DOI: 10.1021/jo4013805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Glycoconjugates are composed of carbohydrate building blocks linked together in a multitude of ways giving rise to diverse biological functions. Carbohydrates are especially difficult to synthetically manipulate because of the similar reactivity of their numerous and largely equivalent hydroxyl groups. Hence, methodologies for both the efficient protection and selective modification of carbohydrate alcohols are considered important synthetic tools in organic chemistry. When per-O-TMS protected mono- or disaccharides in a mixture of pyridine and acetic anhydride are treated with acetic acid, regioselective exchange of silicon for acetate protecting groups occurs. Acid concentration, thermal conditions, and microwave assistance mediate the silyl/acetate exchange reaction. Regiocontrol is achieved by limiting the equivalents of acetic acid, and microwave irradiation hastens the process. We coined the term Regioselective Silyl Exchange Technology (ReSET) to describe this process, which essentially sets the protecting groups anew. To demonstrate the scope of the reaction, the conditions were applied to lactose, melibiose, cellobiose, and trehalose. ReSET provided rapid access to a wide range of orthogonally protected disaccharides that would otherwise require multiple synthetic steps to acquire. The resulting bifunctional molecules are poised to serve as modular building blocks for more complex glycoconjugates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Wu Hsieh
- Department of Chemistry, University of California at Davis , One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
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6
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Gori A, Longhi R, Peri C, Colombo G. Peptides for immunological purposes: design, strategies and applications. Amino Acids 2013; 45:257-68. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-013-1526-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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El Ashry ESH, El Tamany ESH, Fattah MEDA, Aly MRE, Boraei ATA, Duerkop A. A new synthetic access to 2-N-(glycosyl)thiosemicarbazides from 3-N-(glycosyl)oxadiazolinethiones and the regioselectivity of the glycosylation of their oxadiazolinethione precursors. Beilstein J Org Chem 2013; 9:135-46. [PMID: 23400104 PMCID: PMC3566832 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.9.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosylations of 5-(1H-indol-2-yl)-1,3,4-oxadiazoline-2(3H)-thione delivered various degrees of S- and/or N-glycosides depending on the reaction conditions. S-Glycosides were obtained regiospecifically by grinding oxadiazolinethiones with acylated α-D-glycosyl halides in basic alumina, whereas 3-N-(glycosyl)oxadiazolinethiones were selectively obtained by reaction with HgCl(2) followed by heating the resultant chloromercuric salt with α-D-glycosyl halides in toluene under reflux. On using Et(3)N or K(2)CO(3) as a base, mixtures of S- (major degree) and N-glycosides (minor degree) were obtained. Pure 3-N-(glycosyl)oxadiazolinethiones can also be selectively obtained from glycosylsulfanyloxadiazoles by the thermal S→N migration of the glycosyl moiety, which is proposed to occur by a tight-ion-pair mechanism. Thermal S→N migration of the glycosyl moiety can be used for purification of mixtures of S- or N-glycosides to obtain the pure N-glycosides. The aminolysis of the respective S- or N-glycosides with ammonia in aqueous methanol served as further confirmation of their structures. While in S-glycosides the glycosyl moiety was cleaved off again, 3-N-(glycosyl)oxadiazolinethiones showed a ring opening of the oxadiazoline ring (without affecting the glycosyl moiety) to give N-(glycosyl)thiosemicarbazides. Herewith, a new synthetic access to one of the four classes of glycosylthiosemicarbazides was found. The ultimate confirmation of new structures was achieved by X-ray crystallography. Finally, action of ammonia on benzylated 3-N-(galactosyl)oxadiazolinethione unexpectedly yielded 3-N-(galactosyl)triazolinethione. This represents a new path to the conversion of glycosyloxadiazolinethiones to new glycosyltriazolinethione nucleosides, which was until now unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- El Sayed H El Ashry
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, Karachi University, Karachi, Pakistan
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - El Sayed H El Tamany
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | | | - Mohamed R E Aly
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Applied Science, Port Said University, Port Said, Egypt
| | - Ahmed T A Boraei
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, Karachi University, Karachi, Pakistan
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Axel Duerkop
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo and Biosensors, Universitätsstrasse 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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8
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Henningham A, Gillen CM, Walker MJ. Group a streptococcal vaccine candidates: potential for the development of a human vaccine. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012; 368:207-42. [PMID: 23250780 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Currently there is no commercial Group A Streptococcus (GAS; S. pyogenes) vaccine available. The development of safe GAS vaccines is challenging, researchers are confronted with obstacles such as the occurrence of many unique serotypes (there are greater than 150 M types), antigenic variation within the same serotype, large variations in the geographical distribution of serotypes, and the production of antibodies cross-reactive with human tissue which can lead to host auto-immune disease. Cell wall anchored, cell membrane associated, secreted and anchorless proteins have all been targeted as GAS vaccine candidates. As GAS is an exclusively human pathogen, the quest for an efficacious vaccine is further complicated by the lack of an animal model which mimics human disease and can be consistently and reproducibly colonized by multiple GAS strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Henningham
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences and Australian Infectious Disease Research Centre, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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Fujita Y, Taguchi H. Current status of multiple antigen-presenting peptide vaccine systems: Application of organic and inorganic nanoparticles. Chem Cent J 2011; 5:48. [PMID: 21861904 PMCID: PMC3178480 DOI: 10.1186/1752-153x-5-48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Many studies are currently investigating the development of safe and effective vaccines to prevent various infectious diseases. Multiple antigen-presenting peptide vaccine systems have been developed to avoid the adverse effects associated with conventional vaccines (i.e., live-attenuated, killed or inactivated pathogens), carrier proteins and cytotoxic adjuvants. Recently, two main approaches have been used to develop multiple antigen-presenting peptide vaccine systems: (1) the addition of functional components, e.g., T-cell epitopes, cell-penetrating peptides, and lipophilic moieties; and (2) synthetic approaches using size-defined nanomaterials, e.g., self-assembling peptides, non-peptidic dendrimers, and gold nanoparticles, as antigen-displaying platforms. This review summarizes the recent experimental studies directed to the development of multiple antigen-presenting peptide vaccine systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Fujita
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Suzuka University of Medical Science, 3500-3, Minami-Tamagaki, Suzuka 513-8670, MIE, Japan.
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10
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Coles DJ, Simerska P, Fujita Y, Toth I. The influence of incorporating lipids or liposaccharides on the particle size of peptide therapeutics. Biopolymers 2011; 96:172-6. [PMID: 20564037 DOI: 10.1002/bip.21459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The characterization of peptide-based drugs is essential to obtain information about their potential suitability. In this study, a therapeutic peptide epitope alone or in combination with a lipid or liposaccharide moiety were assessed to determine their particle sizes by diffusion ordered NMR spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, and mathematical expressions. These methods were compared and their suitability for different types of peptides is discussed herein. When compared with the mathematical expressions, we found that the NMR method resulted in a particle size that was consistent with the radius of the peptide monomer. The dynamic light scattering method showed that when lipids were conjugated to the peptide epitope, the resulting particles had a larger sized distribution compared with the peptide alone. These experiments provided information which can be applied when formulating these peptides as drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Coles
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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Abdel-Aal ABM, Zaman M, Fujita Y, Batzloff MR, Good MF, Toth I. Design of Three-Component Vaccines against Group A Streptococcal Infections: Importance of Spatial Arrangement of Vaccine Components. J Med Chem 2010; 53:8041-6. [DOI: 10.1021/jm1007787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Abu-Baker M. Abdel-Aal
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences (SCMB), The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mehfuz Zaman
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences (SCMB), The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Yoshio Fujita
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences (SCMB), The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael R. Batzloff
- The Queensland Institute of Medical Research (QIMR), Herston 4029, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael F. Good
- The Queensland Institute of Medical Research (QIMR), Herston 4029, Queensland, Australia
| | - Istvan Toth
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences (SCMB), The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Queensland, Australia
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12
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Shukla NM, Malladi SS, Mutz CA, Balakrishna R, David SA. Structure-activity relationships in human toll-like receptor 7-active imidazoquinoline analogues. J Med Chem 2010; 53:4450-65. [PMID: 20481492 DOI: 10.1021/jm100358c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Engagement of toll-like receptors serve to link innate immune responses with adaptive immunity and can be exploited as powerful vaccine adjuvants for eliciting both primary and anamnestic immune responses. TLR7 agonists are highly immunostimulatory without inducing dominant proinflammatory cytokine responses. A structure-activity study was conducted on the TLR7-agonistic imidazoquinolines, starting with 1-(4-amino-2-((ethylamino)methyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-c]quinolin-1-yl)-2-methylpropan-2-ol as a lead. Modifications of the secondary amine of the C2 ethylaminomethylene side chain are poorly tolerated. The 4-amino group must be retained for activity. Replacement of the imidazole ring of the scaffold with triazole or cyclic urea led to complete loss of activity. A systematic exploration of N(1)-benzyl-C2-alkyl substituents showed a very distinct relationship between alkyl length and TLR7-agonistic potency with the optimal compound bearing a C2-n-butyl group. Transposition of the N(1) and C2 substituents led to the identification of an extremely active TLR7-agonistic compound with an EC(50) value of 8.6 nM. The relative potencies in human TLR7-based primary reporter gene assays were paralleled by interferon-alpha induction activities in whole human blood models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikunj M Shukla
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, Multidisciplinary Research Building, Room 320D, 2030 Becker Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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Simerska P, Moyle PM, Toth I. Modern lipid-, carbohydrate-, and peptide-based delivery systems for peptide, vaccine, and gene products. Med Res Rev 2009; 31:520-47. [DOI: 10.1002/med.20191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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14
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Novel strategies for controlling
Streptococcus pyogenes
infection and associated diseases: from potential peptide vaccines to antibody immunotherapy. Immunol Cell Biol 2009; 87:391-9. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2009.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Zhong W, Skwarczynski M, Toth I. Lipid Core Peptide System for Gene, Drug, and Vaccine Delivery. Aust J Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1071/ch09149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A vast number of biologically active compounds await efficient delivery to become therapeutic agents. Lipidation has been demonstrated to be a convenient and useful approach to improve the stability and transport across biological membranes of potential drug molecules. The lipid core peptide (LCP) system has emerged as a promising lipidation tool because of its versatile features. This review discusses the progress in the development of the LCP system to improve cell permeability of nucleotides, physicochemical properties of potential drugs, and vaccine immunogenicity. Emphasis was put on the application of the LCP system to deliver antigens for the prevention of group A streptococcus infection, novel techniques of conjugation of target molecules to the LCP, and new alterations of the LCP system itself.
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