Inhibition of the cellular function of perforin by 1-amino-2,4-dicyanopyrido[1,2-a]benzimidazoles

Fragment-based and structure-guided discovery of perforin inhibitors

Perforin is a pore-forming protein whose normal function enables cytotoxic T and natural killer (NK) cells to kill virus-infected and transformed cells. Conversely, unwanted perforin activity can also result in auto-immune attack, graft rejection and aberrant responses to pathogens. Perforin is critical for the function of the granule exocytosis cell death pathway and is therefore a target for drug development. In this study, by screening a fragment library using NMR and surface plasmon resonance, we identified 4,4-diaminodiphenyl sulfone (dapsone) as a perforin ligand. We also found that dapsone has modest (mM) inhibitory activity of perforin lytic activity in a red blood cell lysis assay in vitro. Sequential modification of this lead fragment, guided by structural knowledge of the ligand binding site and binding pose, and supported by SPR and ligand-detected 19F NMR, enabled the design of nanomolar inhibitors of the cytolytic activity of intact NK cells against various tumour cell targets. Interestingly, the ligands we developed were largely inert with respect to direct perforin-mediated red blood cell lysis but were very potent in the context of perforin's action on delivering granzymes in the immune synapse, the context in which it functions physiologically. Our work indicates that a fragment-based, structure-guided drug discovery strategy can be used to identify novel ligands that bind perforin. Moreover, these molecules have superior physicochemical properties and solubility compared to previous generations of perforin ligands.

Small Molecule Inhibitors of Lymphocyte Perforin as Focused Immunosuppressants for Infection and Autoimmunity

New drugs that precisely target the immune mechanisms critical for cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cell driven pathologies are desperately needed. In this perspective, we explore the cytolytic protein perforin as a target for therapeutic intervention. Perforin plays an indispensable role in CTL/NK killing and controls a range of immune pathologies, while being encoded by a single copy gene with no redundancy of function. An immunosuppressant targeting this protein would provide the first-ever therapy focused specifically on one of the principal cell death pathways contributing to allotransplant rejection and underpinning multiple autoimmune and postinfectious diseases. No drugs that selectively block perforin-dependent cell death are currently in clinical use, so this perspective will review published novel small molecule inhibitors, concluding with in vivo proof-of-concept experiments performed in mouse models of perforin-mediated immune pathologies that provide a potential pathway toward a clinically useful therapeutic agent.

Preclinical Activity and Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Relationship for a Series of Novel Benzenesulfonamide Perforin Inhibitors

Perforin is a key effector of lymphocyte-mediated cell death pathways and contributes to transplant rejection of immunologically mismatched grafts. We have developed a novel series of benzenesulfonamide (BZS) inhibitors of perforin that can mitigate graft rejection during allogeneic bone marrow/stem cell transplantation. Eight such perforin inhibitors were tested for their murine pharmacokinetics, plasma protein binding, and their ability to block perforin-mediated lysis in vitro and to block the rejection of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-mismatched mouse bone marrow cells. All compounds showed >99% binding to plasma proteins and demonstrated perforin inhibitory activity in vitro and in vivo. A lead compound, compound 1, that showed significant increases in allogeneic bone marrow preservation was evaluated for its plasma pharmacokinetics and in vivo efficacy at multiple dosing regimens to establish a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) relationship. The strongest PK/PD correlation was observed between perforin inhibition in vivo and time that total plasma concentrations remained above 900 μM, which correlates to unbound concentrations similar to 3× the unbound in vitro IC₉₀ of compound 1. This PK/PD relationship will inform future dosing strategies of BZS perforin inhibitors to maintain concentrations above 3× the unbound IC₉₀ for as long as possible to maximize efficacy and enhance progression toward clinical evaluation.

Microwave-assisted annulation for the construction of pyrido-fused heterocycles and their application as photoluminescent chemosensors

A catalyst-free microwave-assisted annulation protocol for the preparation of biologically interesting pyrido-fused quinazolinones and pyrido[1,2-a]benzimidazoles is developed. This reaction involves the [3 + 3] annulation of various quinazolinones or benzimidazoles with 3-formylchromones to yield functionalized 11H-pyrido[2,1-b]quinazolin-11-one and pyrido[1,2-a] benzimidazole derivatives. This approach is successfully extended to the construction of various pyrazolo[4,3-d]pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-10(1H)-ones. The present approach is complementary to the existing synthetic methodologies and offers a rapid and facile approach with a broad substrate scope, good yields, catalyst-free conditions, and a high functional group tolerance. The optimal synthesized compound is also employed as an "on-off" photoluminescent probe for the selective detection of Fe³⁺ and Ag⁺ metal ions.

Inhibition of Pore-Forming Proteins

Perforation of cellular membranes by pore-forming proteins can affect cell physiology, tissue integrity, or immune response. Since many pore-forming proteins are toxins or highly potent virulence factors, they represent an attractive target for the development of molecules that neutralize their actions with high efficacy. There has been an assortment of inhibitors developed to specifically obstruct the activity of pore-forming proteins, in addition to vaccination and antibiotics that serve as a plausible treatment for the majority of diseases caused by bacterial infections. Here we review a wide range of potential inhibitors that can specifically and effectively block the activity of pore-forming proteins, from small molecules to more specific macromolecular systems, such as synthetic nanoparticles, antibodies, antibody mimetics, polyvalent inhibitors, and dominant negative mutants. We discuss their mechanism of inhibition, as well as advantages and disadvantages.

Substituted arylsulphonamides as inhibitors of perforin-mediated lysis

The structure-activity relationships for a series of arylsulphonamide-based inhibitors of the pore-forming protein perforin have been explored. Perforin is a key component of the human immune response, however inappropriate activity has also been implicated in certain auto-immune and therapy-induced conditions such as allograft rejection and graft versus host disease. Since perforin is expressed exclusively by cells of the immune system, inhibition of this protein would be a highly selective strategy for the immunosuppressive treatment of these disorders. Compounds from this series were demonstrated to be potent inhibitors of the lytic action of both isolated recombinant perforin and perforin secreted by natural killer cells in vitro. Several potent and soluble examples were assessed for in vivo pharmacokinetic properties and found to be suitable for progression to an in vivo model of transplant rejection.

Antischistosomal Activity of Pyrido[1,2-a]benzimidazole Derivatives and Correlation with Inhibition of β-Hematin Formation

The extensive use of praziquantel against schistosomiasis raises concerns about drug resistance. New therapeutic alternatives targeting critical pathways within the parasite are therefore urgently needed. Hemozoin formation in Schistosoma presents one such target. We assessed the in vitro antischistosomal activity of pyrido[1,2-a]benzimidazoles (PBIs) and investigated correlations with their ability to inhibit β-hematin formation. We further evaluated the in vivo efficacy of representative compounds in experimental mice and conducted pharmacokinetic analysis on the most potent. At 10 μM, 48/57 compounds resulted in >70% mortality of newly transformed schistosomula, whereas 37 of these maintained >60% mortality of adult S. mansoni. No correlations were observed between β-hematin inhibitory and antischistosomal activities against both larval and adult parasites, suggesting possible presence of other target(s) or a mode of inhibition of crystal formation that is not adequately modeled by the assay. The most active compound in vivo showed 58.7 and 61.3% total and female worm burden reduction, respectively. Pharmacokinetic analysis suggested solubility-limited absorption and high hepatic clearance as possible contributors to the modest efficacy despite good in vitro activity. The PBIs evaluated in this report thus merit further optimization to improve their efficacy and to elucidate their possible mode of action.

Copper(ii) catalyzed synthesis of novel helical luminescent benzo[4,5]imidazo[1,2-a][1,10]phenanthrolines via an intramolecular C–H amination reaction

Novel helical luminescent benzoimidazophenanthrolines were prepared using a Cu(ii) catalyzed C–H amination reaction.

A Selective and Slowly Reversible Inhibitor of l-Type Amino Acid Transporter 1 (LAT1) Potentiates Antiproliferative Drug Efficacy in Cancer Cells

The l-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) is a transmembrane protein carrying bulky and neutral amino acids into cells. LAT1 is overexpressed in several types of tumors, and its inhibition can result in reduced cancer cell growth. However, known LAT1 inhibitors lack selectivity over other transporters. In the present study, we designed and synthesized a novel selective LAT1 inhibitor (1), which inhibited the uptake of LAT1 substrate, l-leucin as well as cell growth. It also significantly potentiated the efficacy of bestatin and cisplatin even at low concentrations (25 μM). Inhibition was slowly reversible, as the inhibitor was able to be detached from the cell surface and blood-brain barrier. Moreover, the inhibitor was metabolically stable and selective toward LAT1. Since the inhibitor was readily accumulated into the prostate after intraperitoneal injection to the healthy mice, this compound may be a promising agent or adjuvant especially for the treatment of prostate cancer.

The preclinical pharmacokinetic disposition of a series of perforin-inhibitors as potential immunosuppressive agents

The cytolytic protein perforin is a key component of the immune response and is implicated in a number of human pathologies and therapy-induced conditions. A novel series of small molecule inhibitors of perforin function have been developed as potential immunosuppressive agents. The pharmacokinetics and metabolic stability of a series of 16 inhibitors of perforin was evaluated in male CD1 mice following intravenous administration. The compounds were well tolerated 6 h after dosing. After intravenous administration at 5 mg/kg, maximum plasma concentrations ranged from 532 ± 200 to 10,061 ± 12 ng/mL across the series. Plasma concentrations were greater than the concentrations required for in vitro inhibitory activity for 11 of the compounds. Following an initial rapid distribution phase, the elimination half-life values for the series ranged from 0.82 ± 0.25 to 4.38 ± 4.48 h. All compounds in the series were susceptible to oxidative biotransformation. Following incubations with microsomal preparations, a tenfold range in in vitro half-life was observed across the series. The data suggests that oxidative biotransformation was not singularly responsible for clearance of the compounds and no direct relationship between microsomal clearance and plasma clearance was observed. Structural modifications however, do provide some information as to the relative microsomal stability of the compounds, which may be useful for further drug development.

Perforin and human diseases

Natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) use a highly toxic pore-forming protein perforin (PFN) to destroy cells infected with intracellular pathogens and cells with pre-cancerous transformations. However, mutations of PFN and defects in its expression can cause an abnormal function of the immune system and difficulties in elimination of altered cells. As discussed in this chapter, deficiency of PFN due to the mutations of its gene, PFN1, can be associated with malignancies and severe immune disorders such as familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL) and macrophage activation syndrome. On the other hand, overactivity of PFN can turn the immune system against autologous cells resulting in other diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyositis, rheumatoid arthritis and cutaneous inflammation. PFN also has a crucial role in the cellular rejection of solid organ allografts and destruction of pancreatic β-cells resulting in type 1 diabetes. These facts highlight the importance of understanding the biochemical characteristics of PFN.

Exploration of a series of 5-arylidene-2-thioxoimidazolidin-4-ones as inhibitors of the cytolytic protein perforin

A series of novel 5-arylidene-2-thioxoimidazolidin-4-ones were investigated as inhibitors of the lymphocyte-expressed pore-forming protein perforin. Structure–activity relationships were explored through variation of an isoindolinone or 3,4-dihydroisoquinolinone subunit on a fixed 2-thioxoimidazolidin-4-one/thiophene core. The ability of the resulting compounds to inhibit the lytic activity of both isolated perforin protein and perforin delivered in situ by natural killer cells was determined. A number of compounds showed excellent activity at concentrations that were nontoxic to the killer cells, and several were a significant improvement on previous classes of inhibitors, being substantially more potent and soluble. Representative examples showed rapid and reversible binding to immobilized mouse perforin at low concentrations (≤2.5 μM) by surface plasmon resonance and prevented formation of perforin pores in target cells despite effective target cell engagement, as determined by calcium influx studies. Mouse PK studies of two analogues showed T_1/2 values of 1.1–1.2 h (dose of 5 mg/kg iv) and MTDs of 60–80 mg/kg (ip).

Total synthesis of a marine alkaloid--rigidin E

In the present paper, we report an efficient total synthesis of a marine alkaloid, rigidin E. The key tetrasubstituted 2-amino-3-carboxamidepyrrole intermediate was synthesized by cascade Michael addition/intramolecular cyclization between N-(2-(4-(benzyloxy)phenyl)-2-oxoethyl)methanesulfonamide and 3-(4-(benzyloxy)phenyl)-2-cyano-N-methylacrylamide. Subsequent carbonylation with triphosgene catalyzed by I(2) and deprotection of benzyl groups afforded rigidin E in 21% overall yield. This strategy has the merits of metal-free reactions, low cost, mild reaction protocols, and easy access to diversity-oriented derivatives for potential structure-activity relationship investigation.

Inhibition of the pore-forming protein perforin by a series of aryl-substituted isobenzofuran-1(3H)-ones

An aryl-substituted isobenzofuran-1(3H)-one lead compound was identified from a high throughput screen designed to find inhibitors of the lymphocyte pore-forming protein perforin. A series of analogs were then designed and prepared, exploring structure-activity relationships through variation of 2-thioxoimidazolidin-4-one and furan subunits on an isobenzofuranone core. The ability of the resulting compounds to inhibit the lytic activity of both isolated perforin protein and perforin delivered in situ by intact KHYG-1 natural killer effector cells was determined. Several compounds showed excellent activity at concentrations that were non-toxic to the killer cells. This series represents a significant improvement on previous classes of compounds, being substantially more potent and largely retaining activity in the presence of serum.