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de Souza GS, de Jesus Sonego L, Santos Mundim AC, de Miranda Moraes J, Sales-Campos H, Lorenzón EN. Antimicrobial-wound healing peptides: Dual-function molecules for the treatment of skin injuries. Peptides 2022; 148:170707. [PMID: 34896165 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Chronic non-healing wounds caused by microbial infections extend the necessity for hospital care and constitute a public health problem and a great financial burden. Classic therapies include a wide range of approaches, from wound debridement to vascular surgery. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a preserved trait of the innate immune response among different animal species, with known effects on the immune system and microorganisms. Thus, AMPs may represent promising candidates for the treatment of chronic wounds with dual functionality in two of the main agents that lead to this condition, proliferation of microorganisms and uncontrolled inflammation. Here, our goal is to critically review AMPs with wound healing properties. We strongly believe that these dual-function peptides alone, or in combination with other wound healing strategies, constitute an underexplored field that researchers can take advantage of.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Helioswilton Sales-Campos
- Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública, Departamento de Biociências e Tecnologia, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil
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2
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Batista Araujo J, Sastre de Souza G, Lorenzon EN. Indolicidin revisited: biological activity, potential applications and perspectives of an antimicrobial peptide not yet fully explored. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 38:39. [PMID: 35018535 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03227-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, viruses and tumors is a serious threat to public health. Among natural peptides, indolicidin, a 13-residue peptide belonging to the cathelicidin family, deserves special attention. Indolicidin has a broad spectrum of biological activity and is active against a wide range of targets, such as bacteria (Gram+ and Gram-), fungi and viruses. Here, we review the most important features of the biological activity, potential applications and perspectives of indolicidin and its analogs. Although not yet approved for commercialization, this peptide has great potential to be applied in different areas, including the medical, biomedical, food industry and other unexplored areas. To achieve this goal, a multidisciplinary team of researchers must work together to fine tune peptides that overall lead to novel analogs and formulations to combat existing and possibly future diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guilherme Sastre de Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, USP, Ribeirão Prêto, São Paulo, Brazil
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3
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Shagaghi N, Clayton AHA, Aguilar MI, Lee TH, Palombo EA, Bhave M. Effects of Rationally Designed Physico-Chemical Variants of the Peptide PuroA on Biocidal Activity towards Bacterial and Mammalian Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21228624. [PMID: 33207639 PMCID: PMC7696940 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) often exhibit wide-spectrum activities and are considered ideal candidates for effectively controlling persistent and multidrug-resistant wound infections. PuroA, a synthetic peptide based on the tryptophan (Trp)-rich domain of the wheat protein puroindoline A, displays strong antimicrobial activities. In this work, a number of peptides were designed based on PuroA, varying in physico-chemical parameters of length, number of Trp residues, net charge, hydrophobicity or amphipathicity, D-versus L-isomers of amino acids, cyclization or dimerization, and were tested for antimicrobial potency and salt and protease tolerance. Selected peptides were assessed for effects on biofilms of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and selected mammalian cells. Peptide P1, with the highest amphipathicity, six Trp and a net charge of +7, showed strong antimicrobial activity and salt stability. Peptides W7, W8 and WW (seven to eight residues) were generally more active than PuroA and all diastereomers were protease-resistant. PuroA and certain variants significantly inhibited initial biomass attachment and eradicated preformed biofilms of MRSA. Further, P1 and dimeric PuroA were cytotoxic to HeLa cells. The work has led to peptides with biocidal effects on common human pathogens and/or anticancer potential, also offering great insights into the relationship between physico-chemical parameters and bioactivities, accelerating progress towards rational design of AMPs for therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadin Shagaghi
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia; (N.S.); (E.A.P.)
| | - Andrew H. A. Clayton
- Centre for Micro-Photonics, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia;
| | - Marie-Isabel Aguilar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.-I.A.); (T.-H.L.)
| | - Tzong-Hsien Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia; (M.-I.A.); (T.-H.L.)
| | - Enzo A. Palombo
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia; (N.S.); (E.A.P.)
| | - Mrinal Bhave
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia; (N.S.); (E.A.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-3-9214-5759
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4
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Singh L, Kruger HG, Maguire GEM, Govender T, Parboosing R. Development and Evaluation of Peptide-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for HIV Integrase Inhibition. Int J Pept Res Ther 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-018-9673-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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5
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Shi S, Nguyen PK, Cabral HJ, Diez-Barroso R, Derry PJ, Kanahara SM, Kumar VA. Development of peptide inhibitors of HIV transmission. Bioact Mater 2016; 1:109-121. [PMID: 29744399 PMCID: PMC5883972 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of HIV has long faced the challenge of high mutation rates leading to rapid development of resistance, with ongoing need to develop new methods to effectively fight the infection. Traditionally, early HIV medications were designed to inhibit RNA replication and protein production through small molecular drugs. Peptide based therapeutics are a versatile, promising field in HIV therapy, which continues to develop as we expand our understanding of key protein-protein interactions that occur in HIV replication and infection. This review begins with an introduction to HIV, followed by the biological basis of disease, current clinical management of the disease, therapeutics on the market, and finally potential avenues for improved drug development.
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Key Words
- AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
- ART, antiretroviral therapy
- CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Drug development
- FDA, US Food and Drug Administration
- FY, fiscal year
- HAART, highly active antiretroviral therapy
- HCV, hepatitis C Virus
- HIV
- HIV treatment
- HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
- INSTI, Integrase strand transfer inhibitors
- LEDGF, lens epithelium-derived growth factor
- NNRTI, Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- NRTI, Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
- Peptide inhibitor
- Peptide therapeutic
- R&D, research and development
- RT, reverse transcriptase
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Shi
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Peter K. Nguyen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Henry J. Cabral
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | | | - Paul J. Derry
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | - Vivek A. Kumar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
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6
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Shah P, Hsiao FSH, Ho YH, Chen CS. The proteome targets of intracellular targeting antimicrobial peptides. Proteomics 2016; 16:1225-37. [PMID: 26648572 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201500380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides have been considered well-deserving candidates to fight the battle against microorganisms due to their broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities. Several studies have suggested that membrane disruption is the basic mechanism of AMPs that leads to killing or inhibiting microorganisms. Also, AMPs have been reported to interact with macromolecules inside the microbial cells such as nucleic acids (DNA/RNA), protein synthesis, essential enzymes, membrane septum formation and cell wall synthesis. Proteins are associated with many intracellular mechanisms of cells, thus protein targets may be specifically involved in mechanisms of action of AMPs. AMPs like pyrrhocoricin, drosocin, apidecin and Bac 7 are documented to have protein targets, DnaK and GroEL. Moreover, the intracellular targeting AMPs are reported to influence more than one protein targets inside the cell, suggesting for the multiple modes of actions. This complex mechanism of intracellular targeting AMPs makes them more difficult for the development of resistance. Herein, we have summarized the current status of AMPs in terms of their mode of actions, entry to cytoplasm and inhibition of macromolecules. To reveal the mechanism of action, we have focused on AMPs with intracellular protein targets. We have also included the use of high-throughput proteome microarray to determine the unidentified AMP protein targets in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod Shah
- Graduate Institute of Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Felix Shih-Hsiang Hsiao
- Graduate Institute of Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsuan Ho
- Graduate Institute of Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Sheng Chen
- Graduate Institute of Systems Biology and Bioinformatics, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
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7
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Antimicrobial peptides. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2013; 6:1543-75. [PMID: 24287494 PMCID: PMC3873676 DOI: 10.3390/ph6121543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 822] [Impact Index Per Article: 74.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The rapid increase in drug-resistant infections has presented a serious challenge to antimicrobial therapies. The failure of the most potent antibiotics to kill “superbugs” emphasizes the urgent need to develop other control agents. Here we review the history and new development of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), a growing class of natural and synthetic peptides with a wide spectrum of targets including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. We summarize the major types of AMPs, their modes of action, and the common mechanisms of AMP resistance. In addition, we discuss the principles for designing effective AMPs and the potential of using AMPs to control biofilms (multicellular structures of bacteria embedded in extracellular matrixes) and persister cells (dormant phenotypic variants of bacterial cells that are highly tolerant to antibiotics).
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8
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Serrao E, Thys W, Demeulemeester J, Al-Mawsawi LQ, Christ F, Debyser Z, Neamati N. A symmetric region of the HIV-1 integrase dimerization interface is essential for viral replication. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45177. [PMID: 23028829 PMCID: PMC3445459 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 08/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 integrase (IN) is an important target for contemporary antiretroviral drug design research. Historically, efforts at inactivating the enzyme have focused upon blocking its active site. However, it has become apparent that new classes of allosteric inhibitors will be necessary to advance the antiretroviral field in light of the emergence of viral strains resistant to contemporary clinically used IN drugs. In this study we have characterized the importance of a close network of IN residues, distant from the active site, as important for the obligatory multimerization of the enzyme and viral replication as a whole. Specifically, we have determined that the configuration of six residues within a highly symmetrical region at the IN dimerization interface, composed of a four-tiered aromatic interaction flanked by two salt bridges, significantly contributes to proper HIV-1 replication. Additionally, we have utilized a quantitative luminescence assay to examine IN oligomerization and have determined that there is a very low tolerance for amino acid substitutions along this region. Even conservative residue substitutions negatively impacted IN multimerization, resulting in an inactive viral enzyme and a non-replicative virus. We have shown that there is a very low tolerance for amino acid variation at the symmetrical dimeric interface region characterized in this study, and therefore drugs designed to target the amino acid network detailed here could be expected to yield a significantly reduced number of drug-resistant escape mutations compared to contemporary clinically-evaluated antiretrovirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Serrao
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Wannes Thys
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Division of Molecular Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Jonas Demeulemeester
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Division of Molecular Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Laith Q. Al-Mawsawi
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Frauke Christ
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Division of Molecular Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Zeger Debyser
- Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Division of Molecular Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Flanders, Belgium
| | - Nouri Neamati
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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9
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Maes M, Loyter A, Friedler A. Peptides that inhibit HIV-1 integrase by blocking its protein-protein interactions. FEBS J 2012; 279:2795-809. [PMID: 22742518 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2012.08680.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 integrase (IN) is one of the key enzymes in the viral replication cycle. It mediates the integration of viral cDNA into the host cell genome. IN activity requires interactions with several viral and cellular proteins, as well as IN oligomerization. Inhibition of IN is an important target for the development of anti-HIV therapies, but there is currently only one anti-HIV drug used in the clinic that targets IN. Several other small-molecule anti-IN drug leads are either undergoing clinical trials or in earlier stages of development. These molecules specifically inhibit one of the IN-mediated reactions necessary for successful integration. However, small-molecule inhibitors of protein-protein interactions are difficult to develop. In this review, we focus on peptides that inhibit IN. Peptides have advantages over small-molecule inhibitors of protein-protein interactions: they can mimic the structures of the binding domains within proteins, and are large enough to competitively inhibit protein-protein interactions. The development of peptides that bind IN and inhibit its protein-protein interactions will increase our understanding of the IN mode of action, and lead to the development of new drug leads, such as small molecules derived from these peptides, for better anti-HIV therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Maes
- Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
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10
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Wong JH, Legowska A, Rolka K, Ng TB, Hui M, Cho CH, Lam WWL, Au SWN, Gu OW, Wan DCC. Effects of cathelicidin and its fragments on three key enzymes of HIV-1. Peptides 2011; 32:1117-22. [PMID: 21539873 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2011.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cathelicidins exhibit anti-HIV activity but it is not known if they reduce the activity of enzymes crucial to the life cycle of the retrovirus. It is shown in this investigation that human cathelicidin LL37 and its fragments LL13-37 and LL17-32 inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase dose-dependently with an IC50 value of 15μM, 7μM, and 70μM, respectively. The three peptides inhibited HIV-1 protease with a weak potency, achieving 20-30% inhibition at 100μM. The mechanism of inhibition was protein-protein interaction as revealed by surface plasmon resonance. The peptides were devoid of the ability to inhibit translocation of HIV-1 integrase, which has been labeled with green fluorescent protein, into the nucleus. The peptides did not exert toxicity on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Ho Wong
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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11
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De Zotti M, De Borggraeve W, Kaptein B, Broxterman QB, Singh SB, Felock PJ, Hazuda DJ, Formaggio F, Toniolo C. Triple Hyp→Pro replacement in integramide A, a peptaib inhibitor of HIV-1 integrase: Effect on conformation and bioactivity. Biopolymers 2011; 96:49-59. [DOI: 10.1002/bip.21461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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12
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Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), relies heavily on protein-protein interactions in almost every step of its lifecycle. Targeting these interactions, especially those between virus and host proteins, is increasingly viewed as an ideal avenue for the design and development of new therapeutics. In this tutorial review, we outline the lifecycle of HIV and describe some of the protein-protein interactions that control and regulate each step of this process, also detailing efforts to develop therapies that target these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Tavassoli
- University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK.
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13
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Delcroix M, Riley LW. Cell-Penetrating Peptides for Antiviral Drug Development. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:448-470. [PMID: 27713263 PMCID: PMC4033964 DOI: 10.3390/ph3030448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2009] [Revised: 02/06/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral diseases affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide, and the few available drugs to treat these diseases often come with limitations. The key obstacle to the development of new antiviral agents is their delivery into infected cells in vivo. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short peptides that can cross the cellular lipid bilayer with the remarkable capability to shuttle conjugated cargoes into cells. CPPs have been successfully utilized to enhance the cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking of antiviral molecules, and thereby increase the inhibitory activity of potential antiviral proteins and oligonucleotide analogues, both in cultured cells and in animal models. This review will address the notable findings of these studies, highlighting some promising results and discussing the challenges CPP technology has to overcome for further clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melaine Delcroix
- School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - Lee W Riley
- School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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14
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De Zotti M, Damato F, Formaggio F, Crisma M, Schievano E, Mammi S, Kaptein B, Broxterman QB, Felock PJ, Hazuda DJ, Singh SB, Kirschbaum J, Brückner H, Toniolo C. Total synthesis, characterization, and conformational analysis of the naturally occurring hexadecapeptide integramide A and a diastereomer. Chemistry 2010; 16:316-27. [PMID: 19937615 DOI: 10.1002/chem.200900945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Integramide A is a 16-amino acid peptide inhibitor of the enzyme HIV-1 integrase. We have recently reported that the absolute stereochemistries of the dipeptide sequence near the C terminus are L-Iva(14)-D-Iva(15). Herein, we describe the syntheses of the natural compound and its D-Iva(14)-L-Iva(15) diastereomer, and the results of their chromatographic/mass spectrometric analyses. We present the conformational analysis of the two compounds and some of their synthetic intermediates of different main-chain length in the crystal state (by X-ray diffraction) and in solvents of different polarities (using circular dichroism, FTIR absorption, and 2D NMR techniques). These data shed light on the mechanism of inhibition of HIV-1 integrase, which is an important target for anti-HIV therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta De Zotti
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, CNR, Padova Unit, Department of Chemistry University of Padova via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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15
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Marchand C, Maddali K, Métifiot M, Pommier Y. HIV-1 IN inhibitors: 2010 update and perspectives. Curr Top Med Chem 2010; 9:1016-37. [PMID: 19747122 DOI: 10.2174/156802609789630910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2009] [Accepted: 06/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Integrase (IN) is the newest validated target against AIDS and retroviral infections. The remarkable activity of raltegravir (Isentress((R))) led to its rapid approval by the FDA in 2007 as the first IN inhibitor. Several other IN strand transfer inhibitors (STIs) are in development with the primary goal to overcome resistance due to the rapid occurrence of IN mutations in raltegravir-treated patients. Thus, many scientists and drug companies are actively pursuing clinically useful IN inhibitors. The objective of this review is to provide an update on the IN inhibitors reported in the last two years, including second generation STI, recently developed hydroxylated aromatics, natural products, peptide, antibody and oligonucleotide inhibitors. Additionally, the targeting of IN cofactors such as LEDGF and Vpr will be discussed as novel strategies for the treatment of AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Marchand
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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16
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In search of second-generation HIV integrase inhibitors: targeting integration beyond strand transfer. Future Med Chem 2009; 1:1259-74. [DOI: 10.4155/fmc.09.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly active antiretroviral therapy combines antiviral drugs targeting different steps in the HIV replication cycle in order to reduce viral loads in patients to undetectable levels. Since HIV readily develops resistance and can therefore escape the action of existing drugs, novel drugs with novel mechanisms of action must be developed. The integration of the viral genome into the human genome is an essential and critical replication step that is catalyzed by the viral integrase with the help of cellular cofactors. Although HIV-1 integrase has been studied for more than two decades, the first integrase inhibitor, raltegravir, was only recently approved for clinical use. A second compound, elvitegravir, is currently in advanced clinical trials. Both drugs interfere with the strand-transfer reaction of integrase. Due to the complexity and multistep nature of the integration reaction, several other functions of integrase can be exploited for drug discovery. In this review, we will describe these alternative strategies to inhibit integration. They have recently attracted considerable interest for the development of second-generation integrase inhibitors.
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18
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HIV‐1 Integrase Inhibitors: Update and Perspectives. HIV-1: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS 2008; 56:199-228. [DOI: 10.1016/s1054-3589(07)56007-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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19
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Khandelia H, Kaznessis YN. Cation-pi interactions stabilize the structure of the antimicrobial peptide indolicidin near membranes: molecular dynamics simulations. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:242-50. [PMID: 17201448 PMCID: PMC2440664 DOI: 10.1021/jp064776j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We implemented molecular dynamics simulations of the 13-residue antimicrobial peptide indolicidin (ILPWKWPWWPWRR-NH2) in dodecylphosphocholine (DPC) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) micelles. In DPC, a persistent cation-pi interaction between TRP11 and ARG13 defined the structure of the peptide near the interface. A transient cation-pi interaction was also observed between TRP4 and the choline group on DPC lipids. We also implemented simulation of a mutant of indolicidin in the DPC micelle where TRP11 was replaced by ALA11. As a result of the mutation, the boat-shaped conformation is lost and the structure becomes significantly less defined. On the basis of this evidence, we argue that cation-pi interactions determine the experimentally measured, well-defined boat-shaped structure of indolicidin. In SDS, the lack of such interactions and the electrostatic binding of the terminal arginine residues to the sulfate groups leads to an extended peptide structure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that a cation-pi interaction between peptide side chains has been shown to stabilize the structure of a small antimicrobial peptide. The simulations are in excellent agreement with available experimental measurements: the backbone of the peptide is more ordered in DPC than in SDS; the tryptophan side chains pack against the backbone in DPC and point away from the backbone in SDS; the rms fluctuation of the peptide backbone and peptide side chains is greater in SDS than in DPC; and the peptide backbone order parameters are higher in DPC than in SDS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yiannis N. Kaznessis
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone: 612-624-4197. Fax: 612-626-7246. E-mail:
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Marchand C, Krajewski K, Lee HF, Antony S, Johnson AA, Amin R, Roller P, Kvaratskhelia M, Pommier Y. Covalent binding of the natural antimicrobial peptide indolicidin to DNA abasic sites. Nucleic Acids Res 2006; 34:5157-65. [PMID: 16998183 PMCID: PMC1636436 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkl667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Indolicidin is a host defense tridecapeptide that inhibits the catalytic activity of HIV-1 integrase in vitro. Here we have elucidated its mechanism of integrase inhibition. Using crosslinking and mass spectrometric footprinting approaches, we found that indolicidin interferes with formation of the catalytic integrase-DNA complex by directly binding DNA. Further characterization revealed that the peptide forms covalent links with abasic sites. Indolicidin crosslinks single- or double-stranded DNAs and various positions of the viral cDNA with comparable efficiency. Using truncated and chemically modified peptides, we show that abasic site crosslinking is independent of the PWWP motif but involves the indolicidin unique lysine residue and the N- and C- terminal NH2 groups. Because indolicidin can also inhibit topoisomerase I, we believe that multiple actions at the level of DNA might be a common property of antimicrobial peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Krzysztof Krajewski
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Hsiu-Fang Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Center for Retrovirus Research and Comprehensive Cancer CenterThe Ohio State University Health Sciences Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | | | | | | | - Peter Roller
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Mamuka Kvaratskhelia
- College of Pharmacy, Center for Retrovirus Research and Comprehensive Cancer CenterThe Ohio State University Health Sciences Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Yves Pommier
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 301 496 5944; Fax: +1 301 402 0752;
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Antiviral Activity of Antimicrobial Lipopeptide from Bacillus subtilis fmbj Against Pseudorabies Virus, Porcine Parvovirus, Newcastle Disease Virus and Infectious Bursal Disease Virus in Vitro. Int J Pept Res Ther 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-006-9041-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Chan DI, Prenner EJ, Vogel HJ. Tryptophan- and arginine-rich antimicrobial peptides: Structures and mechanisms of action. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2006; 1758:1184-202. [PMID: 16756942 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2006.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 727] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2006] [Revised: 04/03/2006] [Accepted: 04/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides encompass a number of different classes, including those that are rich in a particular amino acid. An important subset are peptides rich in Arg and Trp residues, such as indolicidin and tritrpticin, that have broad and potent antimicrobial activity. The importance of these two amino acids for antimicrobial activity was highlighted through the screening of a complete combinatorial library of hexapeptides. These residues possess some crucial chemical properties that make them suitable components of antimicrobial peptides. Trp has a distinct preference for the interfacial region of lipid bilayers, while Arg residues endow the peptides with cationic charges and hydrogen bonding properties necessary for interaction with the abundant anionic components of bacterial membranes. In combination, these two residues are capable of participating in cation-pi interactions, thereby facilitating enhanced peptide-membrane interactions. Trp sidechains are also implicated in peptide and protein folding in aqueous solution, where they contribute by maintaining native and nonnative hydrophobic contacts. This has been observed for the antimicrobial peptide from human lactoferrin, possibly restraining the peptide structure in a suitable conformation to interact with the bacterial membrane. These unique properties make the Arg- and Trp-rich antimicrobial peptides highly active even at very short peptide lengths. Moreover, they lead to structures for membrane-mimetic bound peptides that go far beyond regular alpha-helices and beta-sheet structures. In this review, the structures of a number of different Trp- and Arg-rich antimicrobial peptides are examined and some of the major mechanistic studies are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Chan
- Structural Biology Research Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4
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Camarasa MJ, Velázquez S, San-Félix A, Pérez-Pérez MJ, Gago F. Dimerization inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, protease and integrase: A single mode of inhibition for the three HIV enzymes? Antiviral Res 2006; 71:260-7. [PMID: 16872687 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2006.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2006] [Revised: 05/25/2006] [Accepted: 05/30/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The genome of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) encodes 15 distinct proteins, three of which provide essential enzymatic functions: a reverse transcriptase (RT), an integrase (IN), and a protease (PR). Since these enzymes are all homodimers, pseudohomodimers or multimers, disruption of protein-protein interactions in these retroviral enzymes may constitute an alternative way to achieve HIV-1 inhibition. A growing number of dimerization inhibitors for these enzymes is being reported. This mini review summarizes some approaches that have been followed for the development of compounds that inhibit those three enzymes by interfering with the dimerization interfaces between the enzyme subunits.
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Affiliation(s)
- María-José Camarasa
- Instituto de Química Médica (C.S.I.C.), Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
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Abstract
Antimicrobial host defense peptides are produced by all complex organisms as well as some microbes and have diverse and complex antimicrobial activities. Collectively these peptides demonstrate a broad range of antiviral and antibacterial activities and modes of action, and it is important to distinguish between direct microbicidal and indirect activities against such pathogens. The structural requirements of peptides for antiviral and antibacterial activities are evaluated in light of the diverse set of primary and secondary structures described for host defense peptides. Peptides with antifungal and antiparasitic activities are discussed in less detail, although the broad-spectrum activities of such peptides indicate that they are important host defense molecules. Knowledge regarding the relationship between peptide structure and function as well as their mechanism of action is being applied in the design of antimicrobial peptide variants as potential novel therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håvard Jenssen
- Centre for Microbial Diseases and Immunity Research, University of British Columbia, Lower Mall Research Station, 232-2259 Lower Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Abstract
Currently, there are three distinct mechanistic classes of antiretrovirals: inhibitors of the HIV- 1 reverse transcriptase and protease enzymes and inhibitors of HIV entry, including receptor and coreceptor binding and cell fusion. A new drug class that inhibits the HIV-1 integrase enzyme (IN) is in development and may soon be available in the clinic. IN is an attractive drug target because it is essential for a stable and productive HIV-1 infection and there is no mammalian homologue of IN. Inhibitors of integrase enzyme (INI) block the integration of viral double-stranded DNA into the host cell's chromosomal DNA. HIV-1 integration has many potential steps that can be inhibited and several new compounds that target specific integration steps have been identified by drug developers. Recently, two INIs, GS-9137 and MK-0518, demonstrated promising early clinical trial results and have been advanced into later stage trials. In this review, we describe how IN facilitates HIV-1 integration, the needed enzyme cofactors, and the resultant byproducts created during integration. Furthermore, we review the different INIs under development, their mechanism of actions, site of IN inhibition, potency, resistance patterns, and discuss the early clinical trial results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Lataillade
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Yale University School of Medicine, LLCI 100D, 300 Cedar Street, Suite 169, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA.
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Abstract
The integration of viral cDNA into the host genome is an essential step in the HIV-1-life cycle and is mediated by the virally encoded enzyme, integrase (IN). Inhibition of this process provides an attractive strategy for antiviral drug design. The discovery of beta-diketo acid inhibitors played a major role in validating IN as a legitimate antiretroviral drug target. Over a decade of research, a plethora of IN inhibitors have been discovered and some showed antiviral activity consistent with their effect on IN. To date, at least two compounds have been tested in human but none are close to the FDA approval. In this review, we provide a comprehensive report of all small-molecule IN inhibitors discovered during the years 2003 and 2004. Compilation of such data will prove beneficial in developing QSAR, virtual screening, pharmacophore hypothesis generation, and validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raveendra Dayam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 90089, USA
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Abstract
HIV integrase is a rational target for treating HIV infection and preventing AIDS. It took approximately 12 years to develop clinically usable inhibitors of integrase, and Phase I clinical trials of integrase inhibitors have just begun. This review focuses on the molecular basis and rationale for developing integrase inhibitors. The main classes of lead compounds are also described, as well as the concept of interfacial inhibitors of protein-nucleic-acid interactions that might apply to the clinically used strand-transfer inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves Pommier
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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