Bis-azaaromatic quaternary ammonium salts as ligands for the blood-brain barrier choline transporter

Transporter-Mediated Drug Delivery

Transmembrane transport of small organic and inorganic molecules is one of the cornerstones of cellular metabolism. Among transmembrane transporters, solute carrier (SLC) proteins form the largest, albeit very diverse, superfamily with over 400 members. It was recognized early on that xenobiotics can directly interact with SLCs and that this interaction can fundamentally determine their efficacy, including bioavailability and intertissue distribution. Apart from the well-established prodrug strategy, the chemical ligation of transporter substrates to nanoparticles of various chemical compositions has recently been used as a means to enhance their targeting and absorption. In this review, we summarize efforts in drug design exploiting interactions with specific SLC transporters to optimize their therapeutic effects. Furthermore, we describe current and future challenges as well as new directions for the advanced development of therapeutics that target SLC transporters.

The yjdF riboswitch candidate regulates gene expression by binding diverse azaaromatic compounds

The yjdF motif RNA is an orphan riboswitch candidate that almost exclusively associates with the yjdF protein-coding gene in many bacteria. The function of the YjdF protein is unknown, which has made speculation regarding the natural ligand for this putative riboswitch unusually challenging. By using a structure-probing assay for ligand binding, we found that a surprisingly broad diversity of nitrogen-containing aromatic heterocycles, or "azaaromatics," trigger near-identical changes in the structures adopted by representative yjdF motif RNAs. Regions of the RNA that undergo ligand-induced structural modulation reside primarily in portions of the putative aptamer region that are highly conserved in nucleotide sequence, as is typical for riboswitches. Some azaaromatic molecules are bound by the RNA with nanomolar dissociation constants, and a subset of these ligands activate riboswitch-mediated gene expression in cells. Furthermore, genetic elements most commonly adjacent to the yjdF motif RNA or to the yjdF protein-coding region are homologous to protein regulators implicated in mitigating the toxic effects of diverse phenolic acids or polycyclic compounds. Although the precise type of natural ligand sensed by yjdF motif RNAs remains unknown, our findings suggest that this riboswitch class might serve as part of a genetic response system to toxic or signaling compounds with chemical structures similar to azaaromatics.

Molecular determinants of blood-brain barrier permeation

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a microvascular unit which selectively regulates the permeability of drugs to the brain. With the rise in CNS drug targets and diseases, there is a need to be able to accurately predict a priori which compounds in a company database should be pursued for favorable properties. In this review, we will explore the different computational tools available today, as well as underpin these to the experimental methods used to determine BBB permeability. These include in vitro models and the in vivo models that yield the dataset we use to generate predictive models. Understanding of how these models were experimentally derived determines our accurate and predicted use for determining a balance between activity and BBB distribution.

In silico predictive model to determine vector-mediated transport properties for the blood-brain barrier choline transporter

The blood–brain barrier choline transporter (BBB-ChT) may have utility as a drug delivery vector to the central nervous system (CNS). We therefore initiated molecular docking studies with the AutoDock and AutoDock Vina (ADVina) algorithms to develop predictive models for compound screening and to identify structural features important for binding to this transporter. The binding energy predictions were highly correlated with r²=0.88, F=692.4, standard error of estimate =0.775, and P-value<0.0001 for selected BBB-ChT-active/inactive compounds (n=93). Both programs were able to cluster active (Gibbs free energy of binding <−6.0 kcal*mol⁻¹) and inactive (Gibbs free energy of binding >−6.0 kcal*mol⁻¹) molecules and dock them significantly better than at random with an area under the curve value of 0.86 and 0.84, respectively. In ranking smaller molecules with few torsional bonds, a size-related bias in scoring producing false-negative outcomes was detected. Finally, important blood–brain barrier parameters, such as the logBB_passive and logBB_active values, were assessed to predict compound transport to the CNS accurately. Knowledge gained from this study is useful to better understand the binding requirements in BBB-ChT, and until such time as its crystal structure becomes available, it may have significant utility in developing a highly predictive model for the rational design of drug-like compounds targeted to the brain.

Transendothelial Transport and Its Role in Therapeutics

Present review paper highlights role of BBB in endothelial transport of various substances into the brain. More specifically, permeability functions of BBB in transendothelial transport of various substances such as metabolic fuels, ethanol, amino acids, proteins, peptides, lipids, vitamins, neurotransmitters, monocarbxylic acids, gases, water, and minerals in the peripheral circulation and into the brain have been widely explained. In addition, roles of various receptors, ATP powered pumps, channels, and transporters in transport of vital molecules in maintenance of homeostasis and normal body functions have been described in detail. Major role of integral membrane proteins, carriers, or transporters in drug transport is highlighted. Both diffusion and carrier mediated transport mechanisms which facilitate molecular trafficking through transcellular route to maintain influx and outflux of important nutrients and metabolic substances are elucidated. Present review paper aims to emphasize role of important transport systems with their recent advancements in CNS protection mainly for providing a rapid clinical aid to patients. This review also suggests requirement of new well-designed therapeutic strategies mainly potential techniques, appropriate drug formulations, and new transport systems for quick, easy, and safe delivery of drugs across blood brain barrier to save the life of tumor and virus infected patients.

Nicotinic receptor antagonists as treatments for nicotine abuse

Despite the proven efficacy of current pharmacotherapies for tobacco dependence, relapse rates continue to be high, indicating that novel medications are needed. Currently, several smoking cessation agents are available, including varenicline (Chantix®), bupropion (Zyban®), and cytisine (Tabex®). Varenicline and cytisine are partial agonists at the α4β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Bupropion is an antidepressant but is also an antagonist at α3β2* ganglionic nAChRs. The rewarding effects of nicotine are mediated, in part, by nicotine-evoked dopamine (DA) release leading to sensitization, which is associated with repeated nicotine administration and nicotine addiction. Receptor antagonists that selectivity target central nAChR subtypes mediating nicotine-evoked DA release should have efficacy as tobacco use cessation agents with the therapeutic advantage of a limited side-effect profile. While α-conotoxin MII (α-CtxMII)-insensitive nAChRs (e.g., α4β2*) contribute to nicotine-evoked DA release, these nAChRs are widely distributed in the brain, and inhibition of these receptors may lead to nonselective and untoward effects. In contrast, α-CtxMII-sensitive nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked DA release offer an advantage as targets for smoking cessation, due to their more restricted localization primarily to dopaminergic neurons. Small drug-like molecules that are selective antagonists at α-CtxMII-sensitive nAChR subtypes that contain α6 and β2 subunits have now been identified. Early research identified a variety of quaternary ammonium analogs that were potent and selective antagonists at nAChRs mediating nicotine-evoked DA release. More recent data have shown that novel, nonquaternary bis-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine analogs potently inhibit (IC50<1nM) nicotine-evoked DA release in vitro by acting as antagonists at α-CtxMII-sensitive nAChR subtypes; these compounds also decrease NIC self-administration in rats.

Exploiting nutrient transporters at the blood-brain barrier to improve brain distribution of small molecules

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major physiological barrier for drugs that target CNS receptors or enzymes. Several methods exist by which permeability to the CNS can be increased, one of which is using native nutrient transporters to carry these drugs through the endothelial cells of the BBB. In this review, we focus on work that characterizes the use of nutrient transporters of the BBB in delivering drugs to the CNS.