Improved synthesis and biological evaluation of chelator-modified α-MSH analogs prepared by copper-free click chemistry

Advances in Development of Radiometal Labeled Amino Acid-Based Compounds for Cancer Imaging and Diagnostics

Radiolabeled biomolecules targeted at tumor-specific enzymes, receptors, and transporters in cancer cells represent an intensively investigated and promising class of molecular tools for the cancer diagnosis and therapy. High specificity of such biomolecules is a prerequisite for the treatment with a lower burden to normal cells and for the effective and targeted imaging and diagnosis. Undoubtedly, early detection is a key factor in efficient dealing with many severe tumor types. This review provides an overview and critical evaluation of novel approaches in the designing of target-specific probes labeled with metal radionuclides for the diagnosis of most common death-causing cancers, published mainly within the last three years. Advances are discussed such traditional peptide radiolabeling approaches, and click and nanoparticle chemistry. The progress of radiolabeled peptide based ligands as potential radiopharmaceuticals is illustrated via novel structure and application studies, showing how the molecular modifications reflect their binding selectivity to significant onco-receptors, toxicity, and, by that, practical utilization. The most impressive outputs in categories of newly developed structures, as well as imaging and diagnosis approaches, and the most intensively studied oncological diseases in this context, are emphasized in order to show future perspectives of radiometal labeled amino acid-based compounds in nuclear medicine.

The inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder reaction as a new methodology for the synthesis of 225Ac-labelled radioimmunoconjugates

The inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder reaction between tetrazine (Tz) and trans-cyclooctene (TCO) facilitates the efficient radiosynthesis of ²²⁵Ac-labelled radioimmunoconjugates in a two-step method, outperforming conventional approaches based on isothiocyanate couplings.

Inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reactions in chemical biology

The emerging inverse electron demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) reaction stands out from other bioorthogonal reactions by virtue of its unmatchable kinetics, excellent orthogonality and biocompatibility. With the recent discovery of novel dienophiles and optimal tetrazine coupling partners, attention has now been turned to the use of IEDDA approaches in basic biology, imaging and therapeutics. Here we review this bioorthogonal reaction and its promising applications for live cell and animal studies. We first discuss the key factors that contribute to the fast IEDDA kinetics and describe the most recent advances in the synthesis of tetrazine and dienophile coupling partners. Both coupling partners have been incorporated into proteins for tracking and imaging by use of fluorogenic tetrazines that become strongly fluorescent upon reaction. Selected notable examples of such applications are presented. The exceptional fast kinetics of this catalyst-free reaction, even using low concentrations of coupling partners, make it amenable for in vivo radiolabelling using pretargeting methodologies, which are also discussed. Finally, IEDDA reactions have recently found use in bioorthogonal decaging to activate proteins or drugs in gain-of-function strategies. We conclude by showing applications of the IEDDA reaction in the construction of biomaterials that are used for drug delivery and multimodal imaging, among others. The use and utility of the IEDDA reaction is interdisciplinary and promises to revolutionize chemical biology, radiochemistry and materials science.

C-Functionalized chiral dioxocyclam and cyclam derivatives with 1,2,3-triazole units: synthesis, complexation properties and crystal structures of copper(ii) complexes

NewC-functionalized dioxocyclam and cyclam derivatives with 1,2,3-triazoles attached to carbon atoms within the skeleton were designed as valuable bifunctional chelators for molecular imaging.

The interaction of NOTA as a bifunctional chelator with competitive alkali metal ions: a DFT study

This work investigates NOTA–alkali metal (Li⁺, Na⁺ and K⁺ and Rb⁺) complexation using density functional theory.

Photophysical properties and synthesis of new dye-cyclooctyne conjugates for multicolor and advanced microscopy

Cyclooctyne conjugates with fluorophores are often used for bioorthogonal labeling in cells and tissues. However, no comprehensive library of one cyclooctyne core structure with different fluorescent dyes spanning the whole visible spectrum up to the NIR had been described so far. Hence, we synthesized and evaluated one cyclooctyne core structure which is easily accessible for the attachment of different dyes for multicolor imaging, FRET analysis, and study of metabolism in vivo. For these reasons we developed an easy one step synthesis starting from a known cyclooctyne. In combination with NHS-activated dyes, the cyclooctyne reacted to the dye DAB-MFCO conjugates within only 1-2 h at room temperature with high yields. We created conjugates with dyes that have high brightness and are bleaching stable with wavelengths from green to NIR. The ability to label glycans on cell surfaces was tested. All dye DAB-MFCO conjugates undergo click reactions on azide functionalized glycan structures with satisfactory photophysical properties. In total, seven different dye DAB-MFCO conjugates were synthesized; their photophysical properties and suitability for click labeling in biological applications were evaluated, making them suitable for single molecule and high resolution measurements.

64Cu-labeled somatostatin analogues conjugated with cross-bridged phosphonate-based chelators via strain-promoted click chemistry for PET imaging: in silico through in vivo studies

Somatostatin receptor subtype 2 (sstr2) is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is overexpressed in neuroendocrine tumors. The homology model of sstr2 was built and was used to aid the design of new somatostatin analogues modified with phosphonate-containing cross-bridged chelators for evaluation of using them as PET imaging radiopharmaceuticals. The new generation chelators were conjugated to Tyr³-octreotate (Y3-TATE) through bioorthogonal, strain-promoted alkyne azide cycloaddition (SPAAC) to form CB-TE1A1P–DBCO–Y3-TATE (AP) and CB-TE1K1P–PEG4–DBCO–Y3-TATE (KP) in improved yields compared to standard direct conjugation methods of amide bond formation. Consistent with docking studies, the clicked bioconjugates showed high binding affinities to sstr2, with K_d values ranging from 0.6 to 2.3 nM. Selected isomers of the clicked products were used in biodistribution and PET/CT imaging. Introduction of the bulky dibenzocyclooctyne group in AP decreased clearance rates from circulation. However, the additional carboxylate group and PEG linker from the KP conjugate significantly improved labeling conditions and in vivo stability of the copper complex and ameliorated the slower pharmacokinetics of the clicked somatostatin analogues.

Chelators for copper radionuclides in positron emission tomography radiopharmaceuticals

The development of chelating agents for copper radionuclides in positron emission tomography radiopharmaceuticals has been a highly active and important area of study in recent years. The rapid evolution of chelators has resulted in highly specific copper chelators that can be readily conjugated to biomolecules and efficiently radiolabeled to form stable complexes in vivo. Chelators are not only designed for conjugation to monovalent biomolecules but also for incorporation into multivalent targeting ligands such as theranostic nanoparticles. These advancements have strengthened the role of copper radionuclides in the fields of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging. This review emphasizes developments of new copper chelators that have most greatly advanced the field of copper-based radiopharmaceuticals over the past 5 years.

Prospective of ⁶⁸Ga-radiopharmaceutical development

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) experienced accelerated development and has become an established method for medical research and clinical routine diagnostics on patient individualized basis. Development and availability of new radiopharmaceuticals specific for particular diseases is one of the driving forces of the expansion of clinical PET. The future development of the ⁶⁸Ga-radiopharmaceuticals must be put in the context of several aspects such as role of PET in nuclear medicine, unmet medical needs, identification of new biomarkers, targets and corresponding ligands, production and availability of ⁶⁸Ga, automation of the radiopharmaceutical production, progress of positron emission tomography technologies and image analysis methodologies for improved quantitation accuracy, PET radiopharmaceutical regulations as well as advances in radiopharmaceutical chemistry. The review presents the prospects of the ⁶⁸Ga-based radiopharmaceutical development on the basis of the current status of these aspects as well as wide range and variety of imaging agents.

The ubiquitous DOTA and its derivatives: the impact of 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid on biomedical imaging

Over the last twenty-five years 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) has made a significant impact on the field of diagnostic imaging. DOTA is not the only metal chelate in use in medical diagnostics, but it is the only one to significantly impact on all of the major imaging modalities Magnetic Resonance (MR), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), and Fluorescence imaging. This crossover of modalities has been possible due to the versatility of DOTA firstly, to complex a variety of metal ions and secondly, the ease with which it can be modified for different disease states. This has driven research over the last two decades into the chemistry of DOTA and the modification of the substituent pendant arms of this macrocycle to create functional, targeted and dual-modal imaging agents. The primary use of DOTA has been with the lanthanide series of metals, gadolinium for MRI, europium and terbium for fluorescence and neodymium for near infra-red imaging. There are now many research groups dedicated to the use of lanthanides with DOTA although other chelates such as DTPA and NOTA are being increasingly employed. The ease with which DOTA can be conjugated to peptides has given rise to targeted imaging agents seen in the PET, SPECT and radiotherapy fields. These modalities use a variety of radiometals that complex with DOTA, e.g.(64)Cu and (68)Ga which are used in clinical PET scans, (111)In, and (90)Y for SPECT and radiotherapy. In this article, we will demonstrate the remarkable versatility of DOTA, how it has crossed the imaging modality boundaries and how it has been successfully transferred into the clinic.

Clinical applications of Gallium-68

Gallium-68 is a positron-emitting radioisotope that is produced from a (68)Ge/(68)Ga generator. As such it is conveniently used, decoupling radiopharmacies from the need for a cyclotron on site. Gallium-68-labeled peptides have been recognized as a new class of radiopharmaceuticals showing fast target localization and blood clearance. (68)Ga-DOTATOC, (8)Ga-DOTATATE, (68)Ga-DOTANOC, are the most prominent radiopharmaceuticals currently in use for imaging and differentiating lesions of various somatostatin receptor subtypes, overexpressed in many neuroendocrine tumors. There has been a tremendous increase in the number of clinical studies with (68)Ga over the past few years around the world, including within the United States. An estimated ∼10,000 scans are being performed yearly in Europe at about 100 centers utilizing (68)Ga-labeled somatostatin analogs within clinical trials. Two academic sites within the US have also begun to undertake human studies. This review will focus on the clinical experience of selected, well-established and recently applied (68)Ga-labeled imaging agents used in nuclear medicine.

Strain-Promoted Catalyst-Free Click Chemistry for Rapid Construction of (64)Cu-Labeled PET Imaging Probes

A rapid, efficient, and catalyst-free click chemistry method for the construction of (64)Cu-labeled PET imaging probes was reported based on the strain-promoted aza-dibenzocyclooctyne ligation. This new method was exemplified in the synthesis of (64)Cu-labeled RGD peptide for PET imaging of tumor integrin αvβ3 expression in vivo. The catalyst-free click chemistry reaction proceeded with a fast rate and eliminated the contamination problem of the catalyst Cu(I) ions interfering with the (64)Cu radiolabeling procedure under the conventional Cu-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition condition. The new strategy is simple and robust, and the resultant (64)Cu-labeled RGD probe was obtained in an excellent yield and high specific activity. PET imaging and biodistribution studies revealed significant, specific uptake of the "click" (64)Cu-labeled RGD probe in integrin αvβ3-positive U87MG xenografts with little uptake in nontarget tissues. This new approach is versatile, which warrants a wide range of applications for highly diverse radiometalated bioconjugates for radioimaging and radiotherapy.

Novel, cysteine-modified chelation strategy for the incorporation of [M(I)(CO)(3)](+) (M = Re, (99m)Tc) in an α-MSH peptide

Engineering peptide-based targeting agents with residues for site-specific and stable complexation of radionuclides is a highly desirable strategy for producing diagnostic and therapeutic agents for cancer and other diseases. In this report, a model N-S-N(Py) ligand (3) and a cysteine-derived α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) peptide (6) were used as novel demonstrations of a widely applicable chelation strategy for incorporation of the [M(I)(CO)(3)](+) (M = Re, (99m)Tc) core into peptide-based molecules for radiopharmaceutical applications. The structural details of the core ligand-metal complexes as model systems were demonstrated by full chemical characterization of fac-[Re(I)(CO)(3)(N,S,N(Py)-3)](+) (4) and comparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis between 4 and [(99m)Tc(I)(CO)(3)(N,S,N(Py)-3)](+) (4a). The α-MSH analogue bearing the N-S-N(Py) chelate on a modified cysteine residue (6) was generated and complexed with [M(I)(CO)(3)](+) to confirm the chelation strategy's utility when applied in a peptide-based targeting agent. Characterization of the Re(I)(CO)(3)-6 peptide conjugate (7) confirmed the efficient incorporation of the metal center, and the (99m)Tc(I)(CO)(3)-6 analogue (7a) was explored as a potential single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) compound for imaging the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) in melanoma. Peptide 7a showed excellent radiolabeling yields and in vitro stability during amino acid challenge and serum stability assays. In vitro B16F10 melanoma cell uptake of 7a reached a modest value of 2.3 ± 0.08% of applied activity at 2 h at 37 °C, while this uptake was significantly reduced by coincubation with a nonlabeled α-MSH analogue, NAPamide (3.2 μM) (P < 0.05). In vivo SPECT/X-ray computed tomography (SPECT/CT) imaging and biodistribution of 7a were evaluated in a B16F10 melanoma xenografted mouse model. SPECT/CT imaging clearly visualized the tumor at 1 h post injection (p.i.) with high tumor-to-background contrast. Blocking studies with coinjected NAPamide (10 mg per kg of mouse body weight) confirmed the in vivo specificity of 7a for MC1R-positive tumors. Biodistribution results with 7a yielded a moderate tumor uptake of 1.20 ± 0.09 percentage of the injected radioactive dose per gram of tissue (% ID/g) at 1 h p.i. Relatively high uptake of 7a was also seen in the kidneys and liver at 1 h p.i. (6.55 ± 0.36% ID/g and 4.44 ± 0.17% ID/g, respectively), although reduced kidney uptake was seen at 4 h p.i. (3.20 ± 0.48% ID/g). These results demonstrate the utility of the novel [M(I)(CO)(3)](+) chelation strategy when applied in a targeting peptide.