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Mendoza-Jasso ME, Pérez-Villanueva J, Alvarado-Rodríguez JG, González-Andrade M, Cortés-Benítez F. 3-Benzylaminomethyl Lithocholic Acid Derivatives Exhibited Potent and Selective Uncompetitive Inhibitory Activity Against Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B (PTP1B). ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:33224-33238. [PMID: 39100322 PMCID: PMC11292843 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c04948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is a promising drug target for treating type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and obesity. As a result, developing new therapies that target PTP1B is an attractive strategy for treating these diseases. Herein, we detail the synthesis of 15 lithocholic acid (LA) derivatives, each containing different benzylaminomethyl groups attached to the C3 position of the steroid skeleton. The derivatives were assessed against two forms of PTP1B enzyme (hPTP1B1-400 and hPTP1B1-285), and the most potent compounds were then tested against T-cell protein tyrosine phosphatase (TCPTP) to determine their selectivity. The results showed that compounds 6m and 6n were more potent than the reference compounds (ursolic acid, chlorogenic acid, suramin, and TCS401). Additionally, both compounds exhibited greater potency over hPTP1B1-400. Furthermore, enzyme kinetic studies on hPTP1B1-400 revealed that these two lithocholic acid derivatives have an uncompetitive inhibition against hPTP1B1-400 with K i values of 2.5 and 3.4 μM, respectively. Interestingly, these compounds were around 75-fold more selective for PTP1B over TCPTP. Finally, docking studies and molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) were conducted to determine how these compounds interact with PTP1B. The docking studies revealed hydrophobic and H-bond interactions with amino acid residues in the unstructured region. MDS showed that these interactions persisted throughout the 200 ns simulation, indicating the crucial role of the unstructured zone in the biological activity and inhibition of PTP1B.
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Affiliation(s)
- María-Eugenia Mendoza-Jasso
- Doctorado
en Ciencias Farmacéuticas, División de Ciencias Biológicas
y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma
Metropolitana − Unidad Xochimilco, Ciudad de México 04960, Mexico
- Laboratorio
de Síntesis y Aislamiento de Sustancias Bioactivas, Departamento
de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas
y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma
Metropolitana − Unidad Xochimilco, Ciudad de México 04960, Mexico
- Laboratorio
de Biosensores y Modelaje Molecular, Departamento de Bioquímica,
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Jaime Pérez-Villanueva
- Laboratorio
de Síntesis y Aislamiento de Sustancias Bioactivas, Departamento
de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas
y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma
Metropolitana − Unidad Xochimilco, Ciudad de México 04960, Mexico
| | | | - Martin González-Andrade
- Laboratorio
de Biosensores y Modelaje Molecular, Departamento de Bioquímica,
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Francisco Cortés-Benítez
- Laboratorio
de Síntesis y Aislamiento de Sustancias Bioactivas, Departamento
de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas
y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma
Metropolitana − Unidad Xochimilco, Ciudad de México 04960, Mexico
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Zeng C, Xu S, Yin Z, Cui Y, Xu X, Li N. Optimization and Impurity Control Strategy for Lithocholic Acid Production Using Commercially Plant-Sourced Bisnoralcohol. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:23130-23141. [PMID: 37396276 PMCID: PMC10308411 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c02548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study, lithocholic acid (LCA) was prepared using commercially available plant-sourced bisnoralcohol (BA), and the overall yield of the product was 70.6% for five steps. To prevent process-related impurities, the isomerizations of catalytic hydrogenation in the C4-C5 double bond and reduction of the 3-keto group were optimized. The double bond reduction isomerization was improved (5β-H:5α-H = 97:3) using palladium-copper nanowires (Pd-Cu NWs) instead of Pd/C. The reduction of the 3-keto group was 100% converted to a 3α-OH product by 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/carbonyl reductase catalysis. Moreover, the impurities during the optimization process were comprehensively studied. Compared with the reported synthesis methods, our developed method significantly improved the isomer ratio and overall yield, affording ICH-grade quality of LCA, and it is more cost-effective and suitable for large-scale production of LCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunling Zeng
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan
University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Shitang Xu
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan
University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Zhenlong Yin
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan
University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Yue Cui
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan
University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Xinhua Xu
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan
University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Ningbo Li
- School
of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanxi Medical
University, Taiyuan 030001, China
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Recent Updates on Development of Protein-Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B Inhibitors for Treatment of Diabetes, Obesity and Related Disorders. Bioorg Chem 2022; 121:105626. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.105626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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The development of protein tyrosine phosphatase1B inhibitors defined by binding sites in crystalline complexes. Future Med Chem 2019; 10:2345-2367. [PMID: 30273014 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2018-0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatase1B (PTP1B), a significant negative regulator in insulin and leptin signaling pathways, has emerged as a promising drug target for Type II diabetes mellitus and obesity. Numerous potent PTP1B inhibitors have been discovered within both academia and pharmaceutical industry. However, nearly all medicinal chemistry efforts have been severely hindered because a vast majority of them demonstrate poor membrane permeability and low-selectivity, especially over T-cell protein tyrosine phosphatase (TCPTP). To search the rules about the selectivity over TCPTP and membrane permeability of PTP1B inhibitors, based on the PTP1B/inhibitor crystal complexes, the development PTP1B inhibitors defined as AB, AC, ABC and ADC types have been concluded in the review.
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Giorgio C, Incerti M, Pala D, Russo S, Chiodelli P, Rusnati M, Cantoni A, Di Lecce R, Barocelli E, Bertoni S, Ravassard P, Manenti F, Piemonti L, Ferlenghi F, Lodola A, Tognolini M. Inhibition of Eph/ephrin interaction with the small molecule UniPR500 improves glucose tolerance in healthy and insulin-resistant mice. Pharmacol Res 2019; 141:319-330. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Computational study of new 1,2,3-triazole derivative of lithocholic acid: Structural aspects, non-linear optical properties and molecular docking studies as potential PTP 1B enzyme inhibitor. Comput Biol Chem 2019; 78:144-152. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2018.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Popadyuk II, Markov AV, Morozova EA, Babich VO, Salomatina OV, Logashenko EB, Zenkova MA, Tolstikova TG, Salakhutdinov NF. Synthesis and evaluation of antitumor, anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of novel deoxycholic acid derivatives bearing aryl- or hetarylsulfanyl moieties at the C-3 position. Steroids 2017; 127:1-12. [PMID: 28887170 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Novel deoxycholic acid (DCA) derivatives were stereoselectively synthesised with -OH and -CH2SR moieties at the C-3 position, where R was a substituted aryl [2-aminophenyl (8) or 4-chlorophenyl (9)] or hetaryl [1-methylimidazolyl (5), 1,2,4-triazolyl (6), 5-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazolyl (7), pyridinyl (10) or pyrimidinyl (11)]. These compounds were prepared in good yields from the C-3β-epoxy derivative 2 in the epoxide ring-opening reaction by S-nucleophiles. These derivatives were evaluated for their in vitro anti-proliferation activity in a panel of tumor cell lines. Data showed that: (i) heterocycle-containing derivatives displayed higher cytotoxicity profiles than the parent molecule; (ii) heterocyclic substituents were more preferable than aryl moieties for enhancing anti-proliferation activity; (iii) the sensitivity of tumor cell lines to analysed compounds decreased in the following order: HuTu-80 (duodenal carcinoma)>KB-3-1 (cervical carcinoma)>HepG2 (hepatocellular carcinoma)>MH-22a (hepatoma); (iv) compounds 5, 6 and 11 exhibited a high cytotoxic selectivity index (HuTu-80: SI>7.7, 38.5 and 12.0, respectively). Compounds 2 and 6-8 markedly inhibited NO synthesis by interferon γ-induced macrophages. Screening for anti-inflammatory activity of these derivatives in vivo showed their high potency on histamine- (5, 10) and formalin- (2, 10, 11) induced paw edema models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina I Popadyuk
- N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 9, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation.
| | - Andrey V Markov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 8, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Ekaterina A Morozova
- N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 9, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Valeriya O Babich
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 8, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation; Novosibirsk State University, 2, Pirogova Str., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Oksana V Salomatina
- N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 9, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Evgeniya B Logashenko
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 8, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Marina A Zenkova
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 8, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Tat'yana G Tolstikova
- N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 9, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
| | - Nariman F Salakhutdinov
- N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Sciences, 9, Lavrent'ev Ave., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation; Novosibirsk State University, 2, Pirogova Str., Novosibirsk 630090, Russian Federation
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Abstract
In this paper, a new and concise synthetic route of lithocholic acid (LCA) using commercially available steroid source deoxycholic acid is reported. A series of amide derivatives of LCA were also synthesized and investigated for their activity against the growth of MCF-7 and MCF-7/ADR cells using the sulforhodamine B assay. For MCF-7, the most potent compound 20 showed a 20-fold higher antitumor activity than LCA. For MCF-7/ADR, the most potent compound 24 showed a 22-fold higher antitumor activity than LCA. The transwell migration assay of 20 was evaluated on MDA-MB-231 cells. The colony formation and apoptosis assays of 20 were performed on MCF-7 and MCF-7/ADR cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Long He
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Molecular Therapeutics and New Drug Development, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yajing Xing
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Xiang-Zhong Gu
- Department of Research and Development, Jiangsu Jiaerke Pharmaceuticals Group Co Ltd., Zhenglu Town, Changzhou 213111, China
| | - Jie-Xin Xiao
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Molecular Therapeutics and New Drug Development, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Ying-Ying Wang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Molecular Therapeutics and New Drug Development, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Zhengfang Yi
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Wen-Wei Qiu
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Molecular Therapeutics and New Drug Development, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China.
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Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Stilbene Derivatives as Novel Inhibitors of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B. Molecules 2016; 21:molecules21121722. [PMID: 27999292 PMCID: PMC6274251 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21121722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
By imitating the scaffold of lithocholic acid (LCA), a natural steroidal compound displaying Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) inhibitory activity, a series of stilbene derivatives containing phenyl-substituted isoxazoles were designed and synthesized. The structures of the title compounds were confirmed by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and HRMS. Activities of the title compounds were evaluated on PTP1B and the homologous enzyme TCPTP by using a colorimetric assay. Most of the target compounds had good activities against PTP1B. Among them, compound 29 (IC50 = 0.91 ± 0.33 μM), characterized by a 5-(2,3-dichlorophenyl) isoxazole moiety, exhibited an activity about 14-fold higher than the lead compound LCA and a 4.2-fold selectivity over TCPTP. Compound 29 was identified as a competitive inhibitor of PTP1B with a Ki value of 0.78 μM in enzyme kinetic studies.
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Recent advances in the development of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B inhibitors for Type 2 diabetes. Future Med Chem 2016; 8:1239-58. [PMID: 27357615 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2016-0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is the most serious and prevalent metabolic disorders worldwide, complications of which can decrease significantly the quality of life and contribute to premature death. Resistance to insulin is a predominant pathophysiological factor of Type 2 diabetes (T2D). Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) is an important negative factor of insulin signal and a potent therapeutic target in T2D patients. This review highlights recent advances (2012-2015) in research related to the role of PTP1B in signal transduction processes implicated in pathophysiology of T2D, and novel PTP1B inhibitors with an emphasis on their chemical structures and modes of action.
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Cui HW, Peng S, Gu XZ, Chen H, He Y, Gao W, Lv F, Wang JH, Wang Y, Xie J, Liu MY, Yi Z, Qiu WW. Synthesis and biological evaluation of D-ring fused 1,2,3-thiadiazole dehydroepiandrosterone derivatives as antitumor agents. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 111:126-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.01.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Wang MY, Jin YY, Wei HY, Zhang LS, Sun SX, Chen XB, Dong WL, Xu WR, Cheng XC, Wang RL. Synthesis, biological evaluation and 3D-QSAR studies of imidazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives as novel protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2015; 103:91-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2015] [Revised: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Mao SW, Shuai L, He HB, Pan N, Gao LX, Yu LF, Li J, Li JY, Yang F. Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel 2,3-pyrazole ring-substituted-4,4-dimethyl lithocholic acid derivatives as selective protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) inhibitors with cellular efficacy. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra20238h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fourteen 2,3-pyrazole ring-substituted 4,4-dimethyl lithocholic acid derivatives were designed and synthesized as novel PTP1B inhibitors with good potency, selectivity as well as cell permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi-Wei Mao
- MTDD
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China Normal University
- Shanghai 200062
- China
| | - Lin Shuai
- National Center for Drug Screening
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica
- Chinese Academy of Science
- Shanghai 201203
- China
| | - Hai-Bing He
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Nantong University
- Jiangsu 226019
- China
| | - Na Pan
- MTDD
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China Normal University
- Shanghai 200062
- China
| | - Li-Xin Gao
- National Center for Drug Screening
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica
- Chinese Academy of Science
- Shanghai 201203
- China
| | - Li-Fang Yu
- MTDD
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China Normal University
- Shanghai 200062
- China
| | - Jia Li
- National Center for Drug Screening
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica
- Chinese Academy of Science
- Shanghai 201203
- China
| | - Jing-Ya Li
- National Center for Drug Screening
- Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica
- Chinese Academy of Science
- Shanghai 201203
- China
| | - Fan Yang
- MTDD
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China Normal University
- Shanghai 200062
- China
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14
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Wang LJ, Jiang B, Wu N, Wang SY, Shi DY. Natural and semisynthetic protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) inhibitors as anti-diabetic agents. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra01754h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products offered more opportunities to develop new drugs and leading compounds as potent PTP1B inhibitors for treating T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Jun Wang
- Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Bo Jiang
- Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Ning Wu
- Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Shuai-Yu Wang
- Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
| | - Da-Yong Shi
- Institute of Oceanology
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Qingdao
- China
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are important enzymes that are involved in the regulation of cellular signaling. Evidence accumulated over the years has indicated that PTPs present exciting opportunities for drug discovery against diseases such as diabetes, cancer, autoimmune diseases, and tuberculosis. However, the highly conserved and partially positive charge of the catalytic sites of PTPs is a major challenge in the development of potent and highly selective PTP inhibitors. RECENT ADVANCES Here, we examine the strategy of developing bidentate inhibitors for selective inhibition of PTPs. Bidentate inhibitors are small-molecular-weight compounds with the ability to bind to both the active site and a non-conserved secondary phosphate binding site. This secondary phosphate binding site was initially discovered in protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), and, hence, most of the bidentate inhibitors reported in this review are PTP1B inhibitors. CRITICAL ISSUES Although bidentate inhibition is a good strategy for developing potent and selective inhibitors, the cell membrane permeability and pharmacokinetic properties of the inhibitors are also important for successful drug development. In this review, we will also summarize the various efforts made toward the development of phosphotyrosine (pTyr) mimetics for increasing cellular permeability. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Even though the secondary phosphate binding site was initially found in PTP1B, structural data have shown that a secondary binding site can also be found in other PTPs, albeit with varying degrees of accessibility. Along with improvements in pTyr mimetics, we believe that the future will see an increase in the number of orally bioavailable bidentate inhibitors against the various classes of PTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Leng Low
- 1 Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences , Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
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