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Zell L, Bretl A, Temml V, Schuster D. Dopamine Receptor Ligand Selectivity-An In Silico/In Vitro Insight. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1468. [PMID: 37239139 PMCID: PMC10216180 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11051468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Different dopamine receptor (DR) subtypes are involved in pathophysiological conditions such as Parkinson's Disease (PD), schizophrenia and depression. While many DR-targeting drugs have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), only a very small number are truly selective for one of the DR subtypes. Additionally, most of them show promiscuous activity at related G-protein coupled receptors, thus suffering from diverse side-effect profiles. Multiple studies have shown that combined in silico/in vitro approaches are a valuable contribution to drug discovery processes. They can also be applied to divulge the mechanisms behind ligand selectivity. In this study, novel DR ligands were investigated in vitro to assess binding affinities at different DR subtypes. Thus, nine D2R/D3R-selective ligands (micro- to nanomolar binding affinities, D3R-selective profile) were successfully identified. The most promising ligand exerted nanomolar D3R activity (Ki = 2.3 nM) with 263.7-fold D2R/D3R selectivity. Subsequently, ligand selectivity was rationalized in silico based on ligand interaction with a secondary binding pocket, supporting the selectivity data determined in vitro. The developed workflow and identified ligands could aid in the further understanding of the structural motifs responsible for DR subtype selectivity, thus benefitting drug development in D2R/D3R-associated pathologies such as PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Daniela Schuster
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria; (L.Z.); (A.B.); (V.T.)
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Juza R, Musilek K, Mezeiova E, Soukup O, Korabecny J. Recent advances in dopamine D 2 receptor ligands in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Med Res Rev 2023; 43:55-211. [PMID: 36111795 DOI: 10.1002/med.21923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Dopamine is a biologically active amine synthesized in the central and peripheral nervous system. This biogenic monoamine acts by activating five types of dopamine receptors (D1-5 Rs), which belong to the G protein-coupled receptor family. Antagonists and partial agonists of D2 Rs are used to treat schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, depression, and anxiety. The typical pharmacophore with high D2 R affinity comprises four main areas, namely aromatic moiety, cyclic amine, central linker and aromatic/heteroaromatic lipophilic fragment. From the literature reviewed herein, we can conclude that 4-(2,3-dichlorophenyl), 4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-, 4-(benzo[b]thiophen-4-yl)-1-substituted piperazine, and 4-(6-fluorobenzo[d]isoxazol-3-yl)piperidine moieties are critical for high D2 R affinity. Four to six atoms chains are optimal for D2 R affinity with 4-butoxyl as the most pronounced one. The bicyclic aromatic/heteroaromatic systems are most frequently occurring as lipophilic appendages to retain high D2 R affinity. In this review, we provide a thorough overview of the therapeutic potential of D2 R modulators in the treatment of the aforementioned disorders. In addition, this review summarizes current knowledge about these diseases, with a focus on the dopaminergic pathway underlying these pathologies. Major attention is paid to the structure, function, and pharmacology of novel D2 R ligands, which have been developed in the last decade (2010-2021), and belong to the 1,4-disubstituted aromatic cyclic amine group. Due to the abundance of data, allosteric D2 R ligands and D2 R modulators from patents are not discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radomir Juza
- Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic.,Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Kamil Musilek
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic.,Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Mezeiova
- Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic.,Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Soukup
- Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Korabecny
- Experimental Neurobiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic.,Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
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Newman AH, Battiti FO, Bonifazi A. 2016 Philip S. Portoghese Medicinal Chemistry Lectureship: Designing Bivalent or Bitopic Molecules for G-Protein Coupled Receptors. The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts. J Med Chem 2019; 63:1779-1797. [PMID: 31499001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The genesis of designing bivalent or bitopic molecules that engender unique pharmacological properties began with Portoghese's work directed toward opioid receptors, in the early 1980s. This strategy has evolved as an attractive way to engineer highly selective compounds for targeted G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) with optimized efficacies and/or signaling bias. The emergence of X-ray crystal structures of many GPCRs and the identification of both orthosteric and allosteric binding sites have provided further guidance to ligand drug design that includes a primary pharmacophore (PP), a secondary pharmacophore (SP), and a linker between them. It is critical to note the synergistic relationship among all three of these components as they contribute to the overall interaction of these molecules with their receptor proteins and that strategically designed combinations have and will continue to provide the GPCR molecular tools of the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Hauck Newman
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Francisco O Battiti
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Alessandro Bonifazi
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
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Carli M, Kolachalam S, Aringhieri S, Rossi M, Giovannini L, Maggio R, Scarselli M. Dopamine D2 Receptors Dimers: How can we Pharmacologically Target Them? Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 16:222-230. [PMID: 28521704 PMCID: PMC5883381 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666170518151127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dopamine D2 and D3 receptors can form homo- and heterodimers and are important targets in Schizophrenia and Parkinson's. Recently, many efforts have been made to pharmacologically target these receptor complexes. This review focuses on various strategies to act specifically on dopamine receptor dimers, that are transiently formed. METHODS Various binding and functional assays were reviewed to study the properties of bivalent ligands, particularly for the dualsteric compound SB269,652. The dimerization of D2 and D3 receptors were analyzed by using single particle tracking microscopy. RESULTS The specific targeting of dopamine D2 and D3 dimers can be achieved with bifunctional ligands, composed of two pharmacophores binding the two orthosteric sites of the dimeric complex. If the target is a homodimer, then the ligand is homobivalent. Instead, if the target is a heterodimer, then the ligand is heterobivalent. However, there is some concern regarding pharmacokinetics and binding properties of such drugs. Recently, a new generation of bitopic compounds with dualsteric properties have been discovered that bind to the orthosteric and the allosteric sites in one monomeric receptor. Regarding dopamine D2 and D3 receptors, a new dualsteric molecule SB269,652 was shown to have selective negative allosteric properties across D2 and D3 homodimers, but it behaves as an orthosteric antagonist on receptor monomer. Targeting dimers is also complicated as they are transiently formed with varying monomer/dimer ratio. Furthermore, this ratio can be altered by administering an agonist or a bifunctional antagonist. CONCLUSION Last 15 years have witnessed an explosive amount of work aimed at generating bifunctional compounds as a novel strategy to target GPCR homo- and heterodimers, including dopamine receptors. Their clinical use is far from trivial, but, at least, they have been used to validate the existence of receptor dimers in-vitro and in-vivo. The dualsteric compound SB269, 652, with its peculiar pharmacological profile, may offer therapeutic advantages and a better tolerability in comparison with pure antagonists at D2 and D3 receptors and pave the way for a new generation of antipsychotic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Carli
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Shivakumar Kolachalam
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefano Aringhieri
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Mario Rossi
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, MD. United States
| | - Luca Giovannini
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Roberto Maggio
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Marco Scarselli
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Stępnicki P, Kondej M, Kaczor AA. Current Concepts and Treatments of Schizophrenia. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23082087. [PMID: 30127324 PMCID: PMC6222385 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23082087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental illness which involves three groups of symptoms, i.e., positive, negative and cognitive, and has major public health implications. According to various sources, it affects up to 1% of the population. The pathomechanism of schizophrenia is not fully understood and current antipsychotics are characterized by severe limitations. Firstly, these treatments are efficient for about half of patients only. Secondly, they ameliorate mainly positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations and thought disorders which are the core of the disease) but negative (e.g., flat affect and social withdrawal) and cognitive (e.g., learning and attention disorders) symptoms remain untreated. Thirdly, they involve severe neurological and metabolic side effects and may lead to sexual dysfunction or agranulocytosis (clozapine). It is generally agreed that the interactions of antipsychotics with various neurotransmitter receptors are responsible for their effects to treat schizophrenia symptoms. In particular, several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), mainly dopamine, serotonin and adrenaline receptors, are traditional molecular targets for antipsychotics. Comprehensive research on GPCRs resulted in the exploration of novel important signaling mechanisms of GPCRs which are crucial for drug discovery: intentionally non-selective multi-target compounds, allosteric modulators, functionally selective compounds and receptor oligomerization. In this review, we cover current hypotheses of schizophrenia, involving different neurotransmitter systems, discuss available treatments and present novel concepts in schizophrenia and its treatment, involving mainly novel mechanisms of GPCRs signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Stępnicki
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki St., PL-20093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Magda Kondej
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki St., PL-20093 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka A Kaczor
- Department of Synthesis and Chemical Technology of Pharmaceutical Substances, Faculty of Pharmacy with Division of Medical Analytics, Medical University of Lublin, 4A Chodzki St., PL-20093 Lublin, Poland.
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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Luan S, Mu M, Sun L. The mechanism of selfheal extract in treating hyperprolactinemia. Cancer Biomark 2017; 20:575-580. [PMID: 28946556 DOI: 10.3233/cbm-170454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Selfheal has been used for many years in hyperprolactinemia induced galactorrhea, menstrual disorders, and dysgenesis with satisfactory curative effect. However, its mechanism is still unclear. This study intended to investigate the effect of selfheal extract on hyperprolactinemia in vivo and in vitro, in order to elucidate its mechanism of anti-hyperprolactinemia. PATIENTS AND METHODS Hyperprolactinemia rat model was established. High dose (28.8 g/(kg⋅d)), middle dose (14.4 g/ (kg⋅d)), and low dose (7.2 g/(kg⋅d)) of selfheal extract were used to treat the model to observe impact on serum estradiol (E2), progesterone (P), prolactin (PRL), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels. Three cell lines MMQ, GH3, and PC12 were applied to investigate selfheal extract effect on PRL secretion, dopamine D2 receptor, and dopamine transporter (DAT). RESULTS High and middle dose of selfheal extract significantly reduced PRL level in hyperprolactinemia rat compared with model group (P< 0.01). Compared with normal control, 5 mg/ml and 10 mg/ml selfheal extract obviously inhibited PRL secretion in MMQ cells that high expressed D2 receptor after 24 hours (P< 0.01), but did not affect PRL secretion in GH3 cells lack of D2 receptor. 8 mg/ml selfheal extract markedly suppressed D2 receptor and DAT expression in PC12 cells that strongly expressed D2 receptor and DAT (P< 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Selfheal extract treated hyperprolactinemia through dopamine D2 receptor with significant effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suxian Luan
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, Weifang People's Hospital, Weifang, Shandong 261041, China
| | - Meiling Mu
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, Weifang People's Hospital, Weifang, Shandong 261041, China
| | - Liangzhi Sun
- Department of Orthopaedics, Weifang People' s Hospital, Weifang, Shandong 261041, China
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Multivalent approaches and beyond: novel tools for the investigation of dopamine D2 receptor pharmacology. Future Med Chem 2016; 8:1349-72. [DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2016-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) has been implicated in the symptomology of disorders such as schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. Multivalent ligands provide useful tools to investigate emerging concepts of G protein-coupled receptor drug action such as allostery, bitopic binding and receptor dimerization. This review focuses on the approaches taken toward the development of multivalent ligands for the D2R recently and highlights the challenges associated with each approach, their utility in probing D2R function and approaches to develop new D2R-targeting drugs. Furthermore, we extend our discussion to the possibility of designing multitarget ligands. The insights gained from such studies may provide the basis for improved therapeutic targeting of the D2R.
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Sahlholm K, Zeberg H, Nilsson J, Ögren SO, Fuxe K, Århem P. The fast-off hypothesis revisited: A functional kinetic study of antipsychotic antagonism of the dopamine D2 receptor. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2016; 26:467-76. [PMID: 26811292 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Newer, "atypical" antipsychotics carry a lower risk of motor side-effects than older, "typical" compounds. It has been proposed that a ~100-fold faster dissociation from the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) distinguishes atypical from typical antipsychotics. Furthermore, differing antipsychotic D2R affinities have been suggested to reflect differences in dissociation rate constants (koff), while association rate constants (kon) were assumed to be similar. However, it was recently demonstrated that lipophilic accumulation of ligand in the cell interior and/or membrane can cause underestimation of koff, and as high-affinity D2R antagonists are frequently lipophilic, this may have been a confounding factor in previous studies. In the present work, a functional electrophysiology assay was used to measure the recovery of dopamine-mediated D2R responsivity from antipsychotic antagonism, using elevated concentrations of dopamine to prevent the potential bias of re-binding of lipophilic ligands. The variability of antipsychotic kon was also reexamined, capitalizing on the temporal resolution of the assay. kon was estimated from the experimental recordings using a simple mathematical model assumed to describe the binding process. The time course of recovery from haloperidol (typical antipsychotic) was only 6.4- to 2.5-fold slower than that of the atypical antipsychotics, amisulpride, clozapine, and quetiapine, while antipsychotic kons were found to vary more widely than previously suggested. Finally, affinities calculated using our kon and koff estimates correlated well with functional potency and with affinities reported from radioligand binding studies. In light of these findings, it appears unlikely that typical and atypical antipsychotics are primarily distinguished by their D2R binding kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristoffer Sahlholm
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Hugo Zeberg
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johanna Nilsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sven Ove Ögren
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kjell Fuxe
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Peter Århem
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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Huan L, Zhu C. Manganese-catalyzed ring-opening chlorination of cyclobutanols: regiospecific synthesis of γ-chloroketones. Org Chem Front 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6qo00443a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
An efficient, mild, and practical ring-opening chlorination of cyclobutanols is developed by means of manganese catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leitao Huan
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Soochow University
- Suzhou
| | - Chen Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Soochow University
- Suzhou
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Huang G, Nimczick M, Decker M. Rational Modification of the Biological Profile of GPCR Ligands through Combination with Other Biologically Active Moieties. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2015; 348:531-40. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201500079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guozheng Huang
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie; Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie; Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg; Würzburg Germany
| | - Martin Nimczick
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie; Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie; Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg; Würzburg Germany
| | - Michael Decker
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie; Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie; Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg; Würzburg Germany
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Huang G, Pemp D, Stadtmüller P, Nimczick M, Heilmann J, Decker M. Design, synthesis and in vitro evaluation of novel uni- and bivalent ligands for the cannabinoid receptor type 1 with variation of spacer length and structure. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:4209-14. [PMID: 25096297 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 07/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Using rimonabant, a potent inverse agonist for cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R), as parent ligand, a series of novel univalent and bivalent ligands were designed by variation of spacer length and its chemical structure. The ligands synthesized were evaluated for affinity and selectivity by radioligand displacement and a functional steady-state GTPase assay. The results showed the nature of the spacer influences the biological readout. Albeit all compounds show significantly lower affinities than rimonabant, this fact could be used to demonstrate that affinities and selectivity are influenced by the chemical structure and length of the spacer and might be helpful for designing bivalent probes for other GPCR receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guozheng Huang
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany; Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Chemie I, Institut für Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, D-93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Pemp
- Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Institut für Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, D-93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Patricia Stadtmüller
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Nimczick
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany; Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Chemie I, Institut für Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, D-93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Heilmann
- Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Institut für Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, D-93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Michael Decker
- Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie, Institut für Pharmazie und Lebensmittelchemie, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany; Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Institut für Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, D-93053 Regensburg, Germany.
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