1
|
Studdert JB, Bildsoe H, Masamsetti VP, Tam PPL. Visualization of the Cartilage and Bone Elements in the Craniofacial Structures by Alcian Blue and Alizarin Red Staining. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2403:43-50. [PMID: 34913115 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1847-9_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Craniofacial morphogenesis is underpinned by orchestrated growth and form-shaping activity of skeletal and soft tissues in the head and face. Disruptions during development can lead to dysmorphology of the skull, jaw, and the pharyngeal structures. Developmental disorders can be investigated in animal models to elucidate the molecular and cellular consequences of the morphogenetic defects. A first step in determining the disruption in the development of the head and face is to analyze the phenotypic features of the skeletal tissues. Examination of the anatomy of bones and cartilage over time and space will identify structural defects of head structures and guide follow-up analysis of the molecular and cellular attributes associated with the defects. Here we describe a protocol to simultaneously visualize the cartilage and bone elements by Alcian blue and Alizarin red staining, respectively, of wholemount specimens in mouse models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B Studdert
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, NSW, Australia.
| | - Heidi Bildsoe
- Centre for Reproductive Health, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Patrick P L Tam
- Embryology Unit, Children's Medical Research Institute, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Motch Perrine SM, Wu M, Stephens NB, Kriti D, van Bakel H, Jabs EW, Richtsmeier JT. Mandibular dysmorphology due to abnormal embryonic osteogenesis in FGFR2-related craniosynostosis mice. Dis Model Mech 2019; 12:dmm.038513. [PMID: 31064775 PMCID: PMC6550049 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.038513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One diagnostic feature of craniosynostosis syndromes is mandibular dysgenesis. Using three mouse models of Apert, Crouzon and Pfeiffer craniosynostosis syndromes, we investigated how embryonic development of the mandible is affected by fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (Fgfr2) mutations. Quantitative analysis of skeletal form at birth revealed differences in mandibular morphology between mice carrying Fgfr2 mutations and their littermates that do not carry the mutations. Murine embryos with the mutations associated with Apert syndrome in humans (Fgfr2+/S252W and Fgfr2+/P253R) showed an increase in the size of the osteogenic anlagen and Meckel's cartilage (MC). Changes in the microarchitecture and mineralization of the developing mandible were visualized using histological staining. The mechanism for mandibular dysgenesis in the Apert Fgfr2+/S252W mouse resulting in the most severe phenotypic effects was further analyzed in detail and found to occur to a lesser degree in the other craniosynostosis mouse models. Laser capture microdissection and RNA-seq analysis revealed transcriptomic changes in mandibular bone at embryonic day 16.5 (E16.5), highlighting increased expression of genes related to osteoclast differentiation and dysregulated genes active in bone mineralization. Increased osteoclastic activity was corroborated by TRAP assay and in situ hybridization of Csf1r and Itgb3. Upregulated expression of Enpp1 and Ank was validated in the mandible of Fgfr2+/S252W embryos, and found to result in elevated inorganic pyrophosphate concentration. Increased proliferation of osteoblasts in the mandible and chondrocytes forming MC was identified in Fgfr2+/S252W embryos at E12.5. These findings provide evidence that FGFR2 gain-of-function mutations differentially affect cartilage formation and intramembranous ossification of dermal bone, contributing to mandibular dysmorphogenesis in craniosynostosis syndromes. This article has an associated First Person interview with the joint first authors of the paper. Summary: FGFR2 gain-of-function mutations differentially affect cartilage formation and intramembranous ossification of dermal bone, resulting in abnormal embryonic osteogenesis of the mandible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Meng Wu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Divya Kriti
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Ethylin Wang Jabs
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shin HR, Bae HS, Kim BS, Yoon HI, Cho YD, Kim WJ, Choi KY, Lee YS, Woo KM, Baek JH, Ryoo HM. PIN1 is a new therapeutic target of craniosynostosis. Hum Mol Genet 2019; 27:3827-3839. [PMID: 30007339 PMCID: PMC6216213 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddy252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) cause congenital skeletal anomalies, including craniosynostosis (CS), which is characterized by the premature closure of craniofacial sutures. Apert syndrome (AS) is one of the severest forms of CS, and the only treatment is surgical expansion of prematurely fused sutures in infants. Previously, we demonstrated that the prolyl isomerase peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase interacting 1 (PIN1) plays a critical role in mediating FGFR signaling and that Pin1+/- mice exhibit delayed closure of cranial sutures. In this study, using both genetic and pharmacological approaches, we tested whether PIN1 modulation could be used as a therapeutic regimen against AS. In the genetic approach, we crossbred Fgfr2S252W/+, a mouse model of AS, and Pin1+/- mice. Downregulation of Pin1 gene dosage attenuated premature cranial suture closure and other phenotypes of AS in Fgfr2S252W/+ mutant mice. In the pharmacological approach, we intraperitoneally administered juglone, a PIN1 enzyme inhibitor, to pregnant Fgfr2S252W/+ mutant mice and found that this treatment successfully interrupted fetal development of AS phenotypes. Primary cultured osteoblasts from Fgfr2S252W/+ mutant mice expressed high levels of FGFR2 downstream target genes, but this phenotype was attenuated by PIN1 inhibition. Post-translational stabilization and activation of Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) in Fgfr2S252W/+ osteoblasts were also attenuated by PIN1 inhibition. Based on these observations, we conclude that PIN1 enzyme activity is important for FGFR2-induced RUNX2 activation and craniofacial suture morphogenesis. Moreover, these findings highlight that juglone or other PIN1 inhibitors represent viable alternatives to surgical intervention for treatment of CS and other hyperostotic diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H R Shin
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H S Bae
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - B S Kim
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H I Yoon
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Y D Cho
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - W J Kim
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - K Y Choi
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Y S Lee
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - K M Woo
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - J H Baek
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H M Ryoo
- BK21 Program, Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and their receptors (FGFRs) are expressed throughout all stages of skeletal development. In the limb bud and in cranial mesenchyme, FGF signaling is important for formation of mesenchymal condensations that give rise to bone. Once skeletal elements are initiated and patterned, FGFs regulate both endochondral and intramembranous ossification programs. In this chapter, we review functions of the FGF signaling pathway during these critical stages of skeletogenesis, and explore skeletal malformations in humans that are caused by mutations in FGF signaling molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States.
| | - Pierre J Marie
- UMR-1132 Inserm (Institut national de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale) and University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Hôpital Lariboisière, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yamaji K, Morita J, Watanabe T, Gunjigake K, Nakatomi M, Shiga M, Ono K, Moriyama K, Kawamoto T. Maldevelopment of the submandibular gland in a mouse model of apert syndrome. Dev Dyn 2018; 247:1175-1185. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kojiro Yamaji
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Jumpei Morita
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Tsukasa Watanabe
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Kaori Gunjigake
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Mitsushiro Nakatomi
- Division of Anatomy, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Momotoshi Shiga
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Kentaro Ono
- Division of Physiology, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Keiji Moriyama
- Division of Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences; Tokyo Medical and Dental University; Tokyo Japan
| | - Tatsuo Kawamoto
- Division of Orofacial Functions and Orthodontics, Department of Health Improvement, Faculty of Dentistry; Kyushu Dental University; Fukuoka Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Khan F, Tanaka M. Designing Smart Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 19:E17. [PMID: 29267207 PMCID: PMC5795968 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The engineering of human tissues to cure diseases is an interdisciplinary and a very attractive field of research both in academia and the biotechnology industrial sector. Three-dimensional (3D) biomaterial scaffolds can play a critical role in the development of new tissue morphogenesis via interacting with human cells. Although simple polymeric biomaterials can provide mechanical and physical properties required for tissue development, insufficient biomimetic property and lack of interactions with human progenitor cells remain problematic for the promotion of functional tissue formation. Therefore, the developments of advanced functional biomaterials that respond to stimulus could be the next choice to generate smart 3D biomimetic scaffolds, actively interacting with human stem cells and progenitors along with structural integrity to form functional tissue within a short period. To date, smart biomaterials are designed to interact with biological systems for a wide range of biomedical applications, from the delivery of bioactive molecules and cell adhesion mediators to cellular functioning for the engineering of functional tissues to treat diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ferdous Khan
- Soft-Materials Chemistry, Institute for Materials Chemistry and Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
| | - Masaru Tanaka
- Soft-Materials Chemistry, Institute for Materials Chemistry and Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan.
- Frontier Center for Organic Materials, Yamagata University, 4-3-16 Jonan, Yonezawa, Yamagata 992-8510, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Das S, Munshi A. Research advances in Apert syndrome. J Oral Biol Craniofac Res 2017; 8:194-199. [PMID: 30191107 DOI: 10.1016/j.jobcr.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome is one of the several genetic syndromes associated with craniosynostosis, a condition that includes premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures. There has been significant clinical variation among different sutural synostoses and also within particular suture synostosis. Enormous progress has been made in identifying various mutations associated with Apert Syndrome. Although a causal gene has been defined, the precise role of this mutation in producing craniofacial dysmorphology and other related abnormalities is in the process of discovery. Most of the understanding regarding this rare disorder has been possible due to mouse models that have helped in deciphering the elements of this rare human disease. Thus, molecular and cellular understanding of the disease has taken a leap and further with the advent of technology definitive diagnosis of the syndrome is no more of an issue. In this review, we have discussed and consolidated the possible molecular studies that have contributed in understanding of this rare syndrome. This article may help clinicians and researchers to inform about the latest progress in Apert syndrome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satrupa Das
- Institute of Genetics and Hospital for Genetic Diseases, Osmania University, Begumpet, Hyderabad, India.,Dr. NTR University of Health Sciences, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Anjana Munshi
- Centre for Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Yeh E, Atique R, Fanganiello RD, Sunaga DY, Ishiy FAA, Passos-Bueno MR. Cell Type-Dependent Nonspecific Fibroblast Growth Factor Signaling in Apert Syndrome. Stem Cells Dev 2016; 25:1249-60. [DOI: 10.1089/scd.2016.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Yeh
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Rodrigo Atique
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Roberto Dalto Fanganiello
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Daniele Yumi Sunaga
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Felipe Augusto André Ishiy
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Rita Passos-Bueno
- Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Neben CL, Roberts RR, Dipple KM, Merrill AE, Klein OD. Modeling craniofacial and skeletal congenital birth defects to advance therapies. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:R86-R93. [PMID: 27346519 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Craniofacial development is an intricate process of patterning, morphogenesis, and growth that involves many tissues within the developing embryo. Genetic misregulation of these processes leads to craniofacial malformations, which comprise over one-third of all congenital birth defects. Significant advances have been made in the clinical management of craniofacial disorders, but currently very few treatments specifically target the underlying molecular causes. Here, we review recent studies in which modeling of craniofacial disorders in primary patient cells, patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and mice have enhanced our understanding of the etiology and pathophysiology of these disorders while also advancing therapeutic avenues for their prevention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia L Neben
- Department of Orofacial Sciences and Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ryan R Roberts
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, Ostrow School of Dentistry and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Katrina M Dipple
- Departments of Pediatrics and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine and InterDepartmental Program Biomedical Engineering, Henry Samulei School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Amy E Merrill
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, Ostrow School of Dentistry and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ophir D Klein
- Department of Orofacial Sciences and Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA Department of Pediatrics and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathways are essential regulators of vertebrate skeletal development. FGF signaling regulates development of the limb bud and formation of the mesenchymal condensation and has key roles in regulating chondrogenesis, osteogenesis, and bone and mineral homeostasis. This review updates our review on FGFs in skeletal development published in Genes & Development in 2002, examines progress made on understanding the functions of the FGF signaling pathway during critical stages of skeletogenesis, and explores the mechanisms by which mutations in FGF signaling molecules cause skeletal malformations in humans. Links between FGF signaling pathways and other interacting pathways that are critical for skeletal development and could be exploited to treat genetic diseases and repair bone are also explored.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Pierre J Marie
- UMR-1132, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Hopital Lariboisiere, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Khan F, Tanaka M, Ahmad SR. Fabrication of polymeric biomaterials: a strategy for tissue engineering and medical devices. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:8224-8249. [DOI: 10.1039/c5tb01370d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Fabrication of biomaterials scaffolds using various methods and techniques is discussed, utilising biocompatible, biodegradable and stimuli-responsive polymers and their composites. This review covers the lithography and printing techniques, self-organisation and self-assembly methods for 3D structural scaffolds generation, and smart hydrogels, for tissue regeneration and medical devices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ferdous Khan
- Senior Polymer Chemist
- ECOSE-Biopolymer
- Knauf Insulation Limited
- St. Helens
- UK
| | - Masaru Tanaka
- Biomaterials Science Group
- Department of Biochemical Engineering
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering
- Yamagata University
- Yonezawa
| | - Sheikh Rafi Ahmad
- Centre for Applied Laser Spectroscopy
- CDS
- DEAS
- Cranfield University
- Swindon
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Yokota M, Kobayashi Y, Morita J, Suzuki H, Hashimoto Y, Sasaki Y, Akiyoshi K, Moriyama K. Therapeutic effect of nanogel-based delivery of soluble FGFR2 with S252W mutation on craniosynostosis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101693. [PMID: 25003957 PMCID: PMC4086955 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome is an autosomal dominantly inherited disorder caused by missense mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). Surgical procedures are frequently required to reduce morphological and functional defects in patients with Apert syndrome; therefore, the development of noninvasive procedures to treat Apert syndrome is critical. Here we aimed to clarify the etiological mechanisms of craniosynostosis in mouse models of Apert syndrome and verify the effects of purified soluble FGFR2 harboring the S252W mutation (sFGFR2IIIcS252W) on calvarial sutures in Apert syndrome mice in vitro. We observed increased expression of Fgf10, Esrp1, and Fgfr2IIIb, which are indispensable for epidermal development, in coronal sutures in Apert syndrome mice. Purified sFGFR2IIIcS252W exhibited binding affinity for fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) 2 but also formed heterodimers with FGFR2IIIc, FGFR2IIIcS252W, and FGFR2IIIbS252W. Administration of sFGFR2IIIcS252W also inhibited Fgf2-dependent proliferation, phosphorylation of intracellular signaling molecules, and mineralization of FGFR2S252W-overexpressing MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. sFGFR2IIIcS252W complexed with nanogels maintained the patency of coronal sutures, whereas synostosis was observed where the nanogel without sFGFR2S252W was applied. Thus, based on our current data, we suggest that increased Fgf10 and Fgfr2IIIb expression may induce the onset of craniosynostosis in patients with Apert syndrome and that the appropriate delivery of purified sFGFR2IIIcS252W could be effective for treating this disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masako Yokota
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukiho Kobayashi
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Jumpei Morita
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Suzuki
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Yoshihiro Sasaki
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kazunari Akiyoshi
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- ERATO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keiji Moriyama
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Hunt JA, Chen R, van Veen T, Bryan N. Hydrogels for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. J Mater Chem B 2014; 2:5319-5338. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb00775a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Injectable hydrogels have become an incredibly prolific area of research in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, because of their high water content, mechanical similarity to natural tissues, and ease of surgical implantation, hydrogels are at the forefront of biomedical scaffold and drug carrier design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A. Hunt
- Clinical Engineering
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease
- University of Liverpool
- Liverpool, UK
| | - Rui Chen
- Clinical Engineering
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease
- University of Liverpool
- Liverpool, UK
| | - Theun van Veen
- Clinical Engineering
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease
- University of Liverpool
- Liverpool, UK
| | - Nicholas Bryan
- Clinical Engineering
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease
- University of Liverpool
- Liverpool, UK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Liu C, Cui Y, Luan J, Zhou X, Han J. The molecular and cellular basis of Apert syndrome. Intractable Rare Dis Res 2013; 2:115-22. [PMID: 25343114 PMCID: PMC4204555 DOI: 10.5582/irdr.2013.v2.4.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 11/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome (AS) is a rare genetic and congenital disease characterized by craniosynostosis and syndactly of hands and feet. AS patients generally require lifelong management, however there are still no effective treatment methods except surgery. In recent years, research has made great progress in the pathogenesis of AS. FGFR2 mediates extracellular signals into cells and the mutations in the FGFR2 gene cause AS occurrence. Activated FGFs/FGFR2 signaling disrupt the balance of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis via its downstream signal pathways. However, how the pathways transform the balance is not well understood and contradictions have occurred in different studies. In this review, we'll focus on these problems to get a better understanding of AS pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan-Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Yazhou Cui
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Jing Luan
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhou
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Jinxiang Han
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
- Address correspondence to: Dr. Jinxiang Han, Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, 250062, Shandong, China. E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Zhou X, Pu D, Liu R, Li X, Wen X, Zhang L, Chen L, Deng M, Liu L. The Fgfr2(S252W/+) mutation in mice retards mandible formation and reduces bone mass as in human Apert syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2013; 161A:983-92. [PMID: 23495007 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.35824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Apert syndrome is a common craniosynostosis caused by gain-of-function missense mutations of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). Mice with the FGFR2 S252W mutation can elucidate the mechanism by which the human Apert syndrome phenotypes arise. However, many studies have focused on mutant skull and long bone malformation, only few studies have focused on mandible changes. Bone formation and micro-architecture between 28- and 56-day-old mutant mice and controls were compared to investigate the changes in the mandibular micro-architecture caused by the Fgfr2(S252W/+) mutation to provide a basis for exploring the pathogenesis and therapeutic measures of human Apert syndrome. Fgfr2(S252W/+) mutant mice were established, and their general characteristics, including weight, naso-anal length, and calcium and phosphate content in serum and bone were tested. Calcein labeling, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining and toluidine blue staining were used to detect osteoblast and osteoclast activities. H&E staining and micro-CT detection were used to test micro-architecture changes. The changes in mineral apposition rate and micro-architecture of the Fgfr2(S252W/+) mice were statistically significant; however, the magnitude of the micro-architecture became less with age. The Fgfr2(S252W/+) mutation may retard mandibular bone formation, decreased bone volume, and compromised skeletal architecture by regulating both osteoblastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xia Zhou
- Department of Stomatology, Research Institute of Surgery, Daping Hospital, The Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Yeh E, Atique R, Ishiy FAA, Fanganiello RD, Alonso N, Matushita H, da Rocha KM, Passos-Bueno MR. FGFR2 mutation confers a less drastic gain of function in mesenchymal stem cells than in fibroblasts. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2012; 8:685-95. [PMID: 22048896 PMCID: PMC3412083 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-011-9327-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in FGFR2 cause Apert syndrome (AS), a disease characterized by craniosynostosis and limb bone defects both due to abnormalities in bone differentiation and remodeling. Although the periosteum is an important cell source for bone remodeling, its role in craniosynostosis remains poorly characterized. We hypothesized that periosteal mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and fibroblasts from AS patients have abnormal cell phenotypes that contribute to the recurrent fusion of the coronal sutures. MSCs and fibroblasts were obtained from the periostea of 3 AS patients (S252W) and 3 control individuals (WT). We evaluated the proliferation, migration, and osteogenic differentiation of these cells. Interestingly, S252W mutation had opposite effects on different cell types: S252W MSCs proliferated less than WT MSCs, while S252W fibroblasts proliferated more than WT fibroblasts. Under restrictive media conditions, only S252W fibroblasts showed enhanced migration. The presence of S252W mutation increased in vitro and in vivo osteogenic differentiation in both studied cell types, though the difference compared to WT cells was more pronounced in S252W fibroblasts. This osteogenic differentiation was reversed through inhibition of JNK. We demonstrated that S252W fibroblasts can induce osteogenic differentiation in periosteal MSCs but not in MSCs from another tissue. MSCs and fibroblasts responded differently to the pathogenic effects of the FGFR2S252W mutation. We propose that cells from the periosteum have a more important role in the premature fusion of cranial sutures than previously thought and that molecules in JNK pathway are strong candidates for the treatment of AS patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Yeh
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Atique
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Felipe A. A. Ishiy
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Roberto Dalto Fanganiello
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Nivaldo Alonso
- Department of Plastic Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Hamilton Matushita
- Department of Plastic Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Katia Maria da Rocha
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Maria Rita Passos-Bueno
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Suzuki H, Suda N, Shiga M, Kobayashi Y, Nakamura M, Iseki S, Moriyama K. Apert syndrome mutant FGFR2 and its soluble form reciprocally alter osteogenesis of primary calvarial osteoblasts. J Cell Physiol 2012; 227:3267-77. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.24021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
18
|
Algorithm to Assess Cranial Suture Fusion with Varying and Discontinuous Mineral Density. Ann Biomed Eng 2012; 40:1597-609. [DOI: 10.1007/s10439-012-0520-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
19
|
Molecular analysis of coronal perisutural tissues in a craniosynostotic rabbit model using polymerase chain reaction suppression subtractive hybridization. Plast Reconstr Surg 2011; 128:95-103. [PMID: 21701325 DOI: 10.1097/prs.0b013e31821740e8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the United States, the incidence of craniosynostosis (premature fusion of the sutures of the cranial vault) is one in 2000 to 3000 live births. The condition can cause increased intracranial pressure, severely altered head shape, and mental retardation. The authors have previously described a colony of rabbits with heritable coronal suture synostosis. This model has been instrumental in describing the postsurgical craniofacial growth associated with craniosynostosis. The molecular analysis of this model has been limited by the lack of molecular tools for use in rabbits. To understand the pathogenesis of craniosynostosis, the authors compared gene expression in perisutural tissues between wild-type and craniosynostotic rabbits using polymerase chain reaction suppression subtractive hybridization. METHODS Suppression subtractive hybridization polymerase chain reaction was performed on RNA derived from pooled samples of calvariae from 10-day-old wild-type (n = 3) and craniosynostotic (n = 3) rabbits to obtain cDNA clones enriched in either wild-type tissues (underexpressed in craniosynostotic tissue) or craniosynostotic tissues (overexpressed in craniosynostotic compared with wild-type). RESULTS Differential expression was identified for approximately 140 recovered cDNA clones up-regulated in craniosynostotic tissues and 130 recovered clones for wild-type tissues. Of these, four genes were confirmed by quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction as being overexpressed in craniosynostotic sutural tissue: β-globin (HBB), osteopontin (SPP1), osteonectin (SPARC), and cathepsin K (CTSK). Two genes were confirmed to be underexpressed in the craniosynostotic samples: collagen 3, alpha 1 (COL3A1) and ring finger protein 12 (RNF12). CONCLUSION The differential expression of these gene products in our naturally occurring craniosynostotic model appears to be the result of differences in the normal bone formation/resorption pathway.
Collapse
|
20
|
Stricker S, Mundlos S. FGF and ROR2 receptor tyrosine kinase signaling in human skeletal development. Curr Top Dev Biol 2011; 97:179-206. [PMID: 22074606 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385975-4.00013-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal malformations are among the most frequent developmental disturbances in humans. In the past years, progress has been made in unraveling the molecular mechanisms that govern skeletal development by the use of animal models as well as by the identification of numerous mutations that cause human skeletal syndromes. Receptor tyrosine kinases have critical roles in embryonic development. During formation of the skeletal system, the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) family plays major roles in the formation of cranial, axial, and appendicular bones. Another player of relevance to skeletal development is the unusual receptor tyrosine kinase ROR2, the function of which is as interesting as it is complex. In this chapter, we review the involvement of FGFR signaling in human skeletal disease and provide an update on the growing knowledge of ROR2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sigmar Stricker
- Development and Disease Group, Max Planck-Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) play important roles in the control of embryonic and postnatal skeletal development by activating signaling through FGF receptors (FGFRs). Germline gain-of-function mutations in FGFR constitutively activate FGFR signaling, causing chondrocyte and osteoblast dysfunctions that result in skeletal dysplasias. Crosstalk between the FGFR pathway and other signaling cascades controls skeletal precursor cell differentiation. Genetic analyses revealed that the interplay of WNT and FGFR1 determines the fate and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells during mouse craniofacial skeletogenesis. Additionally, interactions between FGFR signaling and other receptor tyrosine kinase networks, such as those mediated by the epidermal growth factor receptor and platelet-derived growth factor receptor α, were associated with excessive osteoblast differentiation and bone formation in the human skeletal dysplasia called craniosynostosis, which is a disorder of skull development. We review the roles of FGFR signaling and its crosstalk with other pathways in controlling skeletal cell fate and discuss how this crosstalk could be pharmacologically targeted to correct the abnormal cell phenotype in skeletal dysplasias caused by aberrant FGFR signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hichem Miraoui
- Laboratory of Osteoblast Biology and Pathology, INSERM UMR606 and University Paris Diderot, Paris 75475, Cedex 10, France
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Wang Y, Sun M, Uhlhorn VL, Zhou X, Peter I, Martinez-Abadias N, Hill CA, Percival CJ, Richtsmeier JT, Huso DL, Jabs EW. Activation of p38 MAPK pathway in the skull abnormalities of Apert syndrome Fgfr2(+P253R) mice. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2010; 10:22. [PMID: 20175913 PMCID: PMC2838826 DOI: 10.1186/1471-213x-10-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2009] [Accepted: 02/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Background Apert syndrome is characterized by craniosynostosis and limb abnormalities and is primarily caused by FGFR2 +/P253R and +/S252W mutations. The former mutation is present in approximately one third whereas the latter mutation is present in two-thirds of the patients with this condition. We previously reported an inbred transgenic mouse model with the Fgfr2 +/S252W mutation on the C57BL/6J background for Apert syndrome. Here we present a mouse model for the Fgfr2+/P253R mutation. Results We generated inbred Fgfr2+/P253R mice on the same C56BL/6J genetic background and analyzed their skeletal abnormalities. 3D micro-CT scans of the skulls of the Fgfr2+/P253R mice revealed that the skull length was shortened with the length of the anterior cranial base significantly shorter than that of the Fgfr2+/S252W mice at P0. The Fgfr2+/P253R mice presented with synostosis of the coronal suture and proximate fronts with disorganized cellularity in sagittal and lambdoid sutures. Abnormal osteogenesis and proliferation were observed at the developing coronal suture and long bones of the Fgfr2+/P253R mice as in the Fgfr2+/S252W mice. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) was observed in the Fgfr2+/P253R neurocranium with an increase in phosphorylated p38 as well as ERK1/2, whereas phosphorylated AKT and PKCα were not obviously changed as compared to those of wild-type controls. There were localized phenotypic and molecular variations among individual embryos with different mutations and among those with the same mutation. Conclusions Our in vivo studies demonstrated that the Fgfr2 +/P253R mutation resulted in mice with cranial features that resemble those of the Fgfr2+/S252W mice and human Apert syndrome. Activated p38 in addition to the ERK1/2 signaling pathways may mediate the mutant neurocranial phenotype. Though Apert syndrome is traditionally thought to be a consistent phenotype, our results suggest localized and regional variations in the phenotypes that characterize Apert syndrome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingli Wang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Miller ND, Nance MA, Wohler ES, Hoover-Fong JE, Lisi E, Thomas GH, Pevsner J. Molecular (SNP) analyses of overlapping hemizygous deletions of 10q25.3 to 10qter in four patients: evidence for HMX2 and HMX3 as candidate genes in hearing and vestibular function. Am J Med Genet A 2009; 149A:669-80. [PMID: 19253379 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.32705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We report on the analyses of four unrelated patients with de novo, overlapping, hemizygous deletions of the long arm of chromosome 10. These include two small terminal deletions (10q26.2 to 10qter), a larger terminal deletion (10q26.12 to 10qter), and an interstitial deletion (10q25.3q26.13). Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) studies (Illumina 550 K) established that these deletions resulted in the hemizygous loss of approximately 6.1, approximately 6.1, approximately 12.5, and approximately 7.0 Mb respectively. Additionally, these data establish that Patients 1, 2, and 3 share common, distal, hemizygous deleted regions of 6.09 Mb containing 37 RefSeq genes. Patients 3 and 4 share a 2.52 Mb deleted region corresponding to the proximal deleted region of Patient 3 and the distal deleted region of Patient 4. This common, hemizygous region contains 20 RefSeq genes including two H6 family homeobox genes (HMX2 and HMX3). Based on previous reports that Hmx2/Hmx3 knockout mice have vestibular anomalies, we propose that hemizygous deletions of HMX2 and HMX3 are responsible for the inner ear malformations observed from CT images, vestibular dysfunction, and congenital sensorineural hearing loss found in Patients 3 and 4.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel D Miller
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Holmes G, Rothschild G, Roy UB, Deng CX, Mansukhani A, Basilico C. Early onset of craniosynostosis in an Apert mouse model reveals critical features of this pathology. Dev Biol 2009; 328:273-84. [PMID: 19389359 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2008] [Revised: 01/16/2009] [Accepted: 01/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Activating mutations of FGFRs1-3 cause craniosynostosis (CS), the premature fusion of cranial bones, in man and mouse. The mechanisms by which such mutations lead to CS have been variously ascribed to increased osteoblast proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, but it is not always clear how these disturbances relate to the process of suture fusion. We have reassessed coronal suture fusion in an Apert Fgfr2 (S252W) mouse model. We find that the critical event of CS is the early loss of basal sutural mesenchyme as the osteogenic fronts, expressing activated Fgfr2, unite to form a contiguous skeletogenic membrane. A mild increase in osteoprogenitor proliferation precedes but does not accompany this event, and apoptosis is insignificant. On the other hand, the more apical coronal suture initially forms appropriately but then undergoes fusion, albeit at a slower rate, accompanied by a significant decrease in osteoprogenitor proliferation, and increased osteoblast maturation. Apoptosis now accompanies fusion, but is restricted to bone fronts in contact with one another. We correlated these in vivo observations with the intrinsic effects of the activated Fgfr2 S252W mutation in primary osteoblasts in culture, which show an increased capacity for both proliferation and differentiation. Our studies suggest that the major determinant of Fgfr2-induced craniosynostosis is the failure to respond to signals that would halt the recruitment or the advancement of osteoprogenitor cells at the sites where sutures should normally form.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Greg Holmes
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|