Pressure and temperature dependence of growth and morphology of Escherichia coli: experiments and stochastic model

Risks of foodborne pathogens associated with animal contamination of raw-agricultural commodities: A review

Pathogens that cause foodborne illness can contaminate raw-agricultural produce via animal intrusion and defecation in production fields. The Food and Drug Administration's Produce Safety Rule and related guidance cite published research on animal intrusion risk and risk-reduction practices. However, additional relevant research has been published since their release. Research on animal contamination often focuses on a single risk factor. This review summarizes current research on multiple risk factors and provides a basis for understanding how these factors may interact to influence risk to produce from animal contamination, providing regulators and educators with science-based information to inform education and outreach to growers. This review may also aid researchers by identifying future research needs. We conclude that when managing risks from animal contamination, a multi-pronged approach is necessary. This approach considers a range of factors, including animal type, nature of feces, rain and irrigation events, meteorology, and worker training. We also created an online tool that conveys the findings of this review in a succinct and digestible format for growers and regulatory and educational partners.

Mechanisms of Pathogenic Escherichia coli Attachment to Meat

Escherichia coli are present in the human and animal microbiome as facultative anaerobes and are viewed as an integral part of the whole gastrointestinal environment. In certain circumstances, some species can also become opportunistic pathogens responsible for severe infections in humans. These infections are caused by the enterotoxinogenic E. coli, enteroinvasive E. coli, enteropathogenic E. coli and the enterohemorrhagic E. coli species, frequently present in food products and on food matrices. Severe human infections can be caused by consumption of meat contaminated upon exposure to animal feces, and as such, farm animals are considered to be a natural reservoir. The mechanisms by which these four major species of E. coli adhere and persist in meat postslaughter are of major interest to public health and food processors given their frequent involvement in foodborne outbreaks. This review aims to structure and provide an update on the mechanistic roles of environmental factors, curli, type I and type IV pili on E. coli adherence/interaction with meat postslaughter. Furthermore, we emphasize on the importance of bacterial surface structures, which can be used in designing interventions to enhance food safety and protect public health by reducing the burden of foodborne illnesses.

Dynamic flux balance analysis of high cell density fed-batch culture of Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) with mass spectrometry-based spent media analysis

Dynamic flux balance analysis (FBA) allows estimation of intracellular reaction rates using organism-specific genome-scale metabolic models (GSMM) and by assuming instantaneous pseudo-steady states for processes that are inherently dynamic. This technique is well-suited for industrial bioprocesses employing complex media characterized by a hierarchy of substrate uptake and product secretion. However, knowledge of exchange rates of many components of the media would be required to obtain meaningful results. Here, we performed spent media analysis using mass spectrometry coupled with liquid and gas chromatography for a fed-batch, high-cell density cultivation of Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) expressing a recombinant protein. Time course measurements thus obtained for 246 metabolites were converted to instantaneous exchange rates. These were then used as constraints for dynamic FBA using a previously reported GSMM, thus providing insights into how the flux map evolves through the process. Changes in tri-carboxylic acid cycle fluxes correlated with the increased demand for energy during recombinant protein production. The results show how amino acids act as hubs for the synthesis of other cellular metabolites. Our results provide a deeper understanding of an industrial bioprocess and will have implications in further optimizing the process.

Energy allocation theory for bacterial growth control in and out of steady state

Efficient allocation of energy resources to key physiological functions allows living organisms to grow and thrive in diverse environments and adapt to a wide range of perturbations. To quantitatively understand how unicellular organisms utilize their energy resources in response to changes in growth environment, we introduce a theory of dynamic energy allocation which describes cellular growth dynamics based on partitioning of metabolizable energy into key physiological functions: growth, division, cell shape regulation, energy storage and loss through dissipation. By optimizing the energy flux for growth, we develop the equations governing the time evolution of cell morphology and growth rate in diverse environments. The resulting model accurately captures experimentally observed dependencies of bacterial cell size on growth rate, superlinear scaling of metabolic rate with cell size, and predicts nutrient-dependent trade-offs between energy expended for growth, division, and shape maintenance. By calibrating model parameters with available experimental data for the model organism E. coli, our model is capable of describing bacterial growth control in dynamic conditions, particularly during nutrient shifts and osmotic shocks. The model captures these perturbations with minimal added complexity and our unified approach predicts the driving factors behind a wide range of observed morphological and growth phenomena.

Occurrence and removal of fecal bacteria and microbial source tracking markers in a stormwater detention basin overlying the Edwards Aquifer recharge zone in Texas

The Edwards Aquifer is the primary water resource for over 2 million people in Texas and faces challenges including fecal contamination of water recharging the aquifer, while effectiveness of best management practices (BMPs) such as detention basins in mitigating fecal pollution remains poorly understood. For this study, the inlet and outlet of a detention basin overlying the aquifer's recharge zone were sampled following storm events using automated samplers. Microbial source tracking and culture-based methods were used to determine the occurrence and removal of fecal genetic markers and fecal coliform bacteria in collected water samples. Markers included E. coli (EC23S857), Enterococcus (Entero1), human (HF183), canine (BacCan), and bird (GFD). Fecal coliforms, EC23S857, and Entero1 were detected following each storm event. GFD was the most frequent host-associated marker detected (91% of samples), followed by BacCan (46%), and HF183 (17%). Wilcoxon signed rank tests indicated significantly lower outlet concentrations for fecal coliforms, EC23S857, and Entero1, but not for HF183, GFD, and BacCan. Higher GFD and BacCan outlet concentrations may be due to factors independent of basin design, such as the non-point source nature of bird fecal contamination and domestic dog care practices in neighborhoods contributing to the basin. Mann-Whitney tests showed marker concentrations were not significantly higher during instances of fecal coliform water quality criterion exceedance, except for E. coli, and that fecal coliform concentrations were not significantly different based on marker detection. Overall, results suggest that the detention basin is effective in attenuating fecal contamination associated with fecal coliforms and the general markers, but not for host-associated markers. Consequently, management efforts should focus on mitigating dog and bird-associated fecal pollution in the study region.

Single-molecule dynamics of DNA gyrase in evolutionarily distant bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Escherichia coli

DNA gyrase is an essential nucleoprotein motor present in all bacteria and is a major target for antibiotic treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection. Gyrase hydrolyzes ATP to add negative supercoils to DNA using a strand passage mechanism that has been investigated using biophysical and biochemical approaches. To analyze the dynamics of substeps leading to strand passage, single-molecule rotor bead tracking (RBT) has been used previously to follow real-time supercoiling and conformational transitions in Escherichia coli (EC) gyrase. However, RBT has not yet been applied to gyrase from other pathogenically relevant bacteria, and it is not known whether substeps are conserved across evolutionarily distant species. Here, we compare gyrase supercoiling dynamics between two evolutionarily distant bacterial species, MTB and EC. We used RBT to measure supercoiling rates, processivities, and the geometries and transition kinetics of conformational states of purified gyrase proteins in complex with DNA. Our results show that E. coli and MTB gyrases are both processive, with the MTB enzyme displaying velocities ∼5.5× slower than the EC enzyme. Compared with EC gyrase, MTB gyrase also more readily populates an intermediate state with DNA chirally wrapped around the enzyme, in both the presence and absence of ATP. Our substep measurements reveal common features in conformational states of EC and MTB gyrases interacting with DNA but also suggest differences in populations and transition rates that may reflect distinct cellular needs between these two species.

Enzyme adaptation to habitat thermal legacy shapes the thermal plasticity of marine microbiomes

Microbial communities respond to temperature with physiological adaptation and compositional turnover. Whether thermal selection of enzymes explains marine microbiome plasticity in response to temperature remains unresolved. By quantifying the thermal behaviour of seven functionally-independent enzyme classes (esterase, extradiol dioxygenase, phosphatase, beta-galactosidase, nuclease, transaminase, and aldo-keto reductase) in native proteomes of marine sediment microbiomes from the Irish Sea to the southern Red Sea, we record a significant effect of the mean annual temperature (MAT) on enzyme response in all cases. Activity and stability profiles of 228 esterases and 5 extradiol dioxygenases from sediment and seawater across 70 locations worldwide validate this thermal pattern. Modelling the esterase phase transition temperature as a measure of structural flexibility confirms the observed relationship with MAT. Furthermore, when considering temperature variability in sites with non-significantly different MATs, the broadest range of enzyme thermal behaviour and the highest growth plasticity of the enriched heterotrophic bacteria occur in samples with the widest annual thermal variability. These results indicate that temperature-driven enzyme selection shapes microbiome thermal plasticity and that thermal variability finely tunes such processes and should be considered alongside MAT in forecasting microbial community thermal response.

A high-value biohythane production: Feedstocks, reactor configurations, pathways, challenges, technoeconomics and applications

In recent years, the demand for high-quality biofuels from renewable sources has become an aspirational goal to offer a clean environment by alternating the depleting fossil fuels to meet future energy needs. In this aspect, biohythane production from wastes has received extensive research interest since it contains superior fuel characteristics than the promising conventional biofuel i.e. biogas. The main aim is to promote research and potentials of biohythane production by a systematic review of scientific literature on the biohythane production pathways, substrate/microbial consortium suitability, reactor design, and influential process/operational factors. Reactor configuration also decides the product yield in addition to other key factors like waste composition, temperature, pH, retention time and loading rates. Hence, a detailed emphasis on different reactor configurations with respect to the type of feedstock has also been given. The technical challenges are highlighted towards process optimization and system scale up. Meanwhile, solutions to improve product yield, technoeconomics, applications and key policy and governance factors to build a hydrogen based society have also been discussed.

The Mini Colon Model: a benchtop multi-bioreactor system to investigate the gut microbiome

In vitro fermentation systems allow for the investigation of gut microbial communities with precise control of various physiological parameters while decoupling confounding factors from the human host. Current systems, such as the SHIME and Robogut, are large in footprint, lack multiplexing, and have low experimental throughput. Alternatives which address these shortcomings, such as the Mini Bioreactor Array system, are often reliant on expensive specialized equipment, which hinders wide replication across labs. Here, we present the Mini Colon Model (MiCoMo), a low-cost, benchtop multi-bioreactor system that simulates the human colon environment with physiologically relevant conditions. The device consists of triplicate bioreactors working independently of an anaerobic chamber and equipped with automated pH, temperature, and fluidic control. We conducted 14-d experiments and found that MiCoMo was able to support a stable complex microbiota community with a Shannon Index of 3.17 ± 0.65, from individual fecal samples after only 3-5 d of inoculation. MiCoMo also retained inter-sample microbial differences by developing closely related communities unique to each donor, while maintaining both minimal variations between replicate reactors (average Bray-Curtis similarity 0.72 ± 0.13) andday-to-day variations (average Bray-Curtis similarity 0.81±0.10) after this short stabilization period. Together, these results establish MiCoMo as an accessible system for studying gut microbial communities with high throughput and multiplexing capabilities.

Stable, efficient, and cost-effective system for the biosynthesis of recombinant bacterial cellulose in Escherichia coli DH5α platform

Background

Owing to its remarkable mechanical properties that surpass the plant-based cellulose, bacterial cellulose production has been targeted for commercialization during the last few years. However, the large-scale production of cellulose is generally limited by the slow growth of producing strains and low productivity which ultimately makes the commercial production of cellulose using the conventional strains non cost-effective. In this study, we developed a novel plasmid-based expression system for the biosynthesis of cellulose in E.coli DH5α and assessed the cellulose productivity relative to the typically used E.coli BL21 (DE) expression strain.

Results

No production was detected in BL21 (DE3) cultures upon expression induction; however, cellulose was detected in E.coli DH5α as early as 1 h post-induction. The total yield in induced DH5α cultures was estimated as 200 ± 5.42 mg/L (dry weight) after 18 h induction, which surpassed the yield reported in previous studies and even the wild-type Gluconacetobacterxylinum BRC5 under the same conditions. As confirmed with electron microscope micrograph, E.coli DH5α produced dense cellulose fibers with ~ 10 μm diameter and 1000–3000 μm length, which were remarkably larger and more crystalline than that typically produced by G.hansenii.

Conclusions

This is the first report on the successful cellulose production in E.coli DH5α which is typically used for plasmid multiplication rather than protein expression, without the need to co-express cmcax and ccpAx regulator genes present in the wild-type genome upstream the bcs-operon, and reportedly essential for the biosynthesis.

Single molecule iSCAT imaging reveals a fast, energy efficient search mode for the DNA repair protein UvrA

Exposure to UV radiation results in numerous DNA lesions, which threaten genome integrity. The nucleotide excision DNA repair pathway detects and repairs a range of such UV-induced DNA lesions. In bacteria, initial damage detection and verification is carried out by two proteins: UvrA and UvrB. Despite decades of study, the process of how these proteins locate damage remains unclear. Here we use high-speed interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy, in combination with a surface-bound-DNA assay, to investigate early damage detection by UvrA. We have discovered that UvrA interacts with DNA in two phases; a slow phase (∼1.3 s^-1) that correlates with an ATP-consuming state previously identified, and a second, much faster search mode. These faster interactions persist for ∼130 ms and using ATP analogues we determine this phase does not require ATP consumption. Including this new fast-search state in a model of the DNA search process reveals that only with this state is it possible for basal levels of UvrA to explore 99% of the E. coli genome within a single division cycle. Altogether, this work uncovers the presence of a rapid, energy efficient search mechanism, which allows UvrA alone to search the entirety of the E. coli genome within a single division cycle.

Associations between ambient temperature and enteric infections by pathogen: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Numerous studies have quantified the associations between ambient temperature and enteric infections, particularly all-cause enteric infections. However, the temperature sensitivity of enteric infections might be pathogen dependent. Here, we sought to identify pathogen-specific associations between ambient temperature and enteric infections.

METHODS

We did a systematic review and meta-analysis by searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus for peer-reviewed research articles published from Jan 1, 2000, to Dec 31, 2019, and also hand searched reference lists of included articles and excluded reviews. We included studies that quantified the effects of ambient temperature increases on common pathogen-specific enteric infections in humans. We excluded studies that expressed ambient temperature as a categorical or diurnal range, or in a standardised format. Two authors screened the search results, one author extracted data from eligible studies, and four authors verified the data. We obtained the overall risks by pooling the relative risks of enteric infection by pathogen for each 1°C temperature rise using random-effects modelling and robust variance estimation for the correlated effect estimates. Between-study heterogeneity was measured using I², τ², and Q-statistic. Publication bias was determined using funnel plot asymmetry and the trim-and-fill method. Differences among pathogen-specific pooled estimates were determined using subgroup analysis of taxa-specific meta-analysis. The study protocol was not registered but followed the PRISMA guidelines.

FINDINGS

We identified 2981 articles via database searches and 57 articles from scanning reference lists of excluded reviews and included articles, of which 40 were eligible for pathogen-specific meta-analyses. The overall increased risks of incidence per 1°C temperature rise, expressed as relative risks, were 1·05 (95% CI 1·04-1·07; I² 97%) for salmonellosis, 1·07 (1·04-1·10; I² 99%) for shigellosis, 1·02 (1·01-1·04; I² 98%) for campylobacteriosis, 1·05 (1·04-1·07; I² 36%) for cholera, 1·04 (1·01-1·07; I² 98%) for Escherichia coli enteritis, and 1·15 (1·07-1·24; I² 0%) for typhoid. Reduced risks per 1°C temperature increase were 0·96 (95% CI 0·90-1·02; I² 97%) for rotaviral enteritis and 0·89 (0·81-0·99; I² 96%) for noroviral enteritis. There was evidence of between-pathogen differences in risk for bacterial infections but not for viral infections.

INTERPRETATION

Temperature sensitivity of enteric infections can vary according to the enteropathogen causing the infection, particularly for bacteria. Thus, we encourage a pathogen-specific health adaptation approach, such as vaccination, given the possibility of increasingly warm temperatures in the future.

FUNDING

Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Kakenhi) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research.

Morphological Phenotypes, Cell Division, and Gene Expression of Escherichia coli under High Concentration of Sodium Sulfate

Sodium and sulfate ions are among the suggested abundant ions on Europa, a moon of Jupiter. In order to investigate the potential habitability of Europa, we study the effects of sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) on a non-halophilic bacterium by subjecting Escherichia coli (E. coli) to a wide range of Na₂SO₄ concentrations (0–1.0 m). We discover that, as the concentration of sodium sulfate increases, the biomass doubling time increases and the cell growth is completely inhibited at 1.0 m Na₂SO₄. Furthermore, we find that E. coli exhibits three distinct morphological phenotypes—(i) shortened, (ii) normal, and (iii) elongated/filamented cells at 0.6 m and 0.8 m Na₂SO₄. We have examined the expression of different genes involved in sodium and sulfate transport (nhaA, nhaB, cysZ, sbp), osmotically driven transport of water (aqpZ), sulfate metabolism (cysN), fatty acid production (fabA), and a global transcriptional regulator (osmZ). Our results suggest that the expression of these genes is not affected significantly at high concentrations of sodium sulfate in the exponential growth phase. Using our experimental data and the existing data in the literature, we show that the osmotic pressure difference may play a major role in determining the growth inhibition of E. coli and B. subtilis at high concentrations of salt.

Pressure and temperature dependence of fluorescence anisotropy of green fluorescent protein

We have studied the effect of high hydrostatic pressure and temperature on the steady state fluorescence anisotropy of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). We find that the fluorescence anisotropy of GFP at a constant temperature decreases with increasing pressure. At atmospheric pressure, anisotropy decreases with increasing temperature but exhibits a maximum with temperature for pressure larger than 20 MPa. The temperature corresponding to the maximum of anisotropy increases with increasing pressure. By taking into account of the rotational correlation time changes of GFP with the pressure–temperature dependent viscosity of the solvent, we argue that viscosity increase with pressure is not a major contributing factor to the decrease in anisotropy with pressure. The decrease of anisotropy with pressure may result from changes in H-bonding environment around the chromophore.

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure and temperature on the steady state fluorescence anisotropy of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP).

High-Throughput Flow-Through Direct Immunoassays for Targeted Bacteria Detection

Regulatory authorities require analytical methods for bacteria detection to analyze large sample volumes (typically 100 mL). Currently only the Membrane Filtration and the Most Probable Number assays analyze such large volumes, while other assays for bacteria detection (ELISA, lateral flow assays, etc.) typically analyze volumes 1000 times smaller. This study describes flow-through direct immunoassays (FTDI), a new methodology for the targeted detection of bacteria in liquid samples of theoretically any volume. Flow-through direct immunoassays are performed in fluid-permeable microwells (e.g., wells of a filter well plate) that have a membrane on their bottom where the bacteria are trapped before their detection using a direct immunoassay. Two versions of FTDI assays for the detection of E. coli in 10 mL of sample were developed. A rapid FTDI assay that can be completed in less than 2.5 h can detect E. coli bacteria in levels down to 17 CFU/mL, and an ultrasensitive FTDI assay that employs an additional bacteria culturing step to boost the sensitivity can detect E. coli bacteria in levels lower than 1 CFU/mL in less than 5.5 h. All the steps of the assays, including the immunoassay steps, the culturing step, and the analytical signal measurement step are performed inside the well plate to decrease the chance of contamination and ensure a safe, easy process for the user. The assays were assessed and validated in tap water, river water, and apple juice samples, and the results suggests that the assays are robust, precise, and accurate. When the assays are performed in 96-well filter plates, a filter well plate vacuum manifold and a multichannel peristaltic pump are also used, so multiple samples can be analyzed in parallel to allow high-throughput analysis of samples.

Characterisation of CaCO3 phases during strain-specific ureolytic precipitation

Numerous microbial species can selectively precipitate mineral carbonates with enhanced mechanical properties, however, understanding exactly how they achieve this control represents a major challenge in the field of biomineralisation. We have studied microbial induced calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) precipitation (MICP) in three ureolytic bacterial strains from the Sporosarcina family, including S. newyorkensis, a newly isolated microbe from the deep sea. We find that the interplay between structural water and strain-specific amino acid groups is fundamental to the stabilisation of vaterite and that, under the same conditions, different isolates yield distinctly different polymorphs. The latter is found to be associated with different urease activities and, consequently, precipitation kinetics, which change depending on pressure-temperature conditions. Further, CaCO₃ polymorph selection also depends on the coupled effect of chemical treatment and initial bacterial concentrations. Our findings provide new insights into strain-specific CaCO₃ polymorphic selection and stabilisation, and open up promising avenues for designing bio-reinforced geo-materials that capitalise on the different particle bond mechanical properties offered by different polymorphs.

Growth, Cell Division, and Gene Expression of Escherichia coli at Elevated Concentrations of Magnesium Sulfate: Implications for Habitability of Europa and Mars

We perform quantitative studies of the growth, death, and gene expression of Escherichia coli in a wide range of magnesium sulfate (MgSO 4 ) concentrations (0-2.5 M). Elevated concentration of MgSO 4 causes the inhibition of cell growth, leading to an increase in the population doubling time. We find that cells exhibit three distinct morphological phenotypes-(i) normal, (ii) filamentous, and (iii) small cells at 1 . 25 M MgSO 4 . Filamentous cells arise due to the lack of cell division, while the small cells arise due to the partial plasmolysis of the cells. We further find that cell death starts for salt concentrations >1.25 M and increases with an increasing concentration of MgSO 4 . For salt concentrations ≥1.66 M, the growth of cells stops and all the cells become smaller than the control cells, suggesting the plasmolysis of the population. Cells grown at salt concentration up to 2 . 07 M are reversible in both the growth rate and morphology upon the removal of the salt stress. The time scale of reversibility increases with increasing salt concentration. Finally, we investigate the expression of an osmotically inducible gene (osmC), genes involved in magnesium transport (corA), sulfate transport (cysP), and osmotically driven transport of water (aqpZ). We find that a high concentration of magnesium sulfate leads to the upregulation of cysP and osmC.

Impact of short-term storage on the quantity of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in broiler litter under practical conditions

Applying broiler litter containing extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli) to arable land poses a potential risk for humans to get colonized by contact with contaminated soil or vegetables. Therefore, an inactivation of these bacteria before land application of litter is crucial. We performed 2 short-term litter storage trials (one in summer and winter, respectively), each covering a time span of 5 D to investigate the effectiveness of this method for inactivation of ESBL-producing E. coli in chicken litter. Surface and deep litter samples were taken from a stacked, ESBL-positive chicken litter heap in triplicates in close sampling intervals at the beginning and daily for the last 3 D of the experiments. Samples were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively for ESBL-producing E. coli, total E. coli, and enterococci. Selected isolates were further characterized by whole-genome sequencing (WGS). In the depth of the heap ESBL-producing E. coli were detected quantitatively until 72 h and qualitatively until the end of the trial in winter. In summer detection was possible quantitatively up to 36 h and qualitatively until 72 h. For surface litter samples a qualitative detection of ESBL-producing E. coli was possible in all samples taken in both trials. In the deep samples a significant decrease in the bacterial counts of over 2 Log10 was observed for total E. coli in the winter and for total E. coli and enterococci in the summer. Genetic differences of the isolates analyzed by WGS did not correlate with survival advantage. In conclusion, short-term storage of chicken litter stacked in heaps is a useful tool for the reduction of bacterial counts including ESBL-producing E. coli. However, incomplete inactivation was observed at the surface of the heap and at low ambient temperatures. Therefore, an extension of the storage period in winter as well as turning of the heap to provide aerobic composting conditions should be considered if working and storage capacities are available on the farms.

Assessment of a low-frequency ultrasound device on prevention of biofilm formation and carbonate deposition in drinking water systems

A device generating low-frequency and low-intensity ultrasound waves was used for mitigating biofilm accumulation and scaling. Two systems were tested: a lab-scale plate heat exchanger operated with continuously recycled water and a continually fed flow-through drinking water pilot used for mimicking water circulation in pipes. Initial deposition of bacterial cells was not prevented by ultrasound wave treatment. However, whatever the tested system, both further calcium carbonate deposition and biofilm growth were markedly inhibited. Biofilms formed in reactors subjected to low-frequency and low-intensity ultrasound waves were weakly attached to the material. Even though the activity of bacteria was affected as shown by their lower cultivability, membrane permeability did not appear compromised. Ultrasound technology sounds very promising in both the mitigation of drinking water biofilm and carbonate accumulation.

Survival of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, HAdV2 and MNV-1 in river water under dark conditions and varying storage temperatures

The ability of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Human adenovirus serotype 2 (HAdV2) and Murine Norovirus 1 (MNV-1) to survive in river water at -20, 4, room temperature (~24 °C) and 37 °C, were evaluated under dark conditions. The tested surface water was obtained from the main Nile River in the Dokki area, Giza and sterilized by autoclaving. The pathogens were inoculated separately in the autoclaved river water. Each microcosm was sampled and the test microorganisms counted after zero (immediately following inoculation), 1, 7, 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 days. Physicochemical parameters including pH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, nitrates and nitrites, and sulphate, were also measured. For HAdV2, the highest decay rates were observed at 37 °C and room temperature compared to 4 and -20 °C. A similar trend was found for the MNV-1, although unlike the HAdV2, the decay rate was higher at -20 than at 4 °C. Also, 4 °C was the best temperature for the survival of MNV-1 (T₉₀ = 76.9 days), E. coli O157:H7 (T₉₀ = 103 days) and Salmonella Typhimurium (T₉₀ = 105 days). The least survival of the pathogens, except MNV-1, was recorded at 37 °C. These results indicate that under dark conditions and low temperatures, enteric pathogens could be stable for extended periods. No significant statistical correlation was observed between the experimental temperatures and the infectivity of the viral particles. This study provided useful information about the stability of these pathogens in the Nile River water and could serve as an early warning when considering the water of the river for agricultural irrigation or household use in areas with limited or no access to potable water.

Lactobacillus reuteri growth and fermentation under high pressure towards the production of 1,3-propanediol

Lactobacillus reuteri is a lactic acid bacterium able to produce several relevant bio-based compounds, including 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO), a compound used in food industry for a wide range of purposes. The performance of fermentations under high pressure (HP) is a novel strategy for stimulation of microbial growth and possible improvement of fermentation processes. Therefore, the present work intended to evaluate the effects of HP (10-35 MPa) on L. reuteri growth and glycerol/glucose co-fermentation, particularly on 1,3-PDO production. Two different types of samples were used: with or without acetate added in the culture medium. The production of 1,3-PDO was stimulated at 10 MPa, resulting in enhanced final titers, yields and productivities, compared to 0.1 MPa. The highest 1,3-PDO titer (4.21 g L^-1) was obtained in the presence of acetate at 10 MPa, representing yield and productivity improvements of ≈ 11 and 12%, respectively, relatively to the same samples at 0.1 MPa. In the absence of acetate, 1,3-PDO titer and productivity were similar to 0.1 MPa, but the yield increased ≈ 26%. High pressure also affected the formation of by-products (lactate, acetate and ethanol) and, as a consequence, higher molar ratios 1,3-PDO:by-products were achieved at 10 MPa, regardless of the presence/absence of acetate. This indicates a metabolic shift, with modification of product selectivity towards production of 1,3-PDO. Overall, this work suggests that HP can be a useful tool to improve of 1,3-PDO production from glycerol by L. reuteri, even if proper process optimization and scale-up are still needed to allow its industrial application. It also opens the possibility of using this technology to stimulate other glycerol fermentations processes that are relevant for food science and biotechnology.

Dynamics of phenotypic switching of bacterial cells with temporal fluctuations in pressure

Phenotypic switching is one of the mechanisms by which bacteria thrive in ever changing environmental conditions around them. Earlier studies have shown that the application of steady high hydrostatic pressure leads to stochastic switching of mesophilic bacteria from a cellular phenotype having a normal cell cycle to another phenotype lacking cell division. Here, we have studied the dynamics of this phenotypic switching with fluctuating periodic pressure using a set of experiments and a theoretical model. Our results suggest that the phenotypic switching rate from high-pressure phenotype to low-pressure phenotype in the reversible regime is larger as compared to the switching rate from low-pressure phenotype to high-pressure phenotype. Furthermore, we find that even though the cell division and elongation are presumably regulated by a large number of genes the underlying physics of the dynamics of stochastic switching at high pressure is captured reasonably well by a simple two-state model.

Spreading of nonmotile bacteria on a hard agar plate: Comparison between agent-based and stochastic simulations

We study spreading of a nonmotile bacteria colony on a hard agar plate by using agent-based and continuum models. We show that the spreading dynamics depends on the initial nutrient concentration, the motility, and the inherent demographic noise. Population fluctuations are inherent in an agent-based model, whereas for the continuum model we model them by using a stochastic Langevin equation. We show that the intrinsic population fluctuations coupled with nonlinear diffusivity lead to a transition from a diffusion limited aggregation type of morphology to an Eden-like morphology on decreasing the initial nutrient concentration.

Bacterial growth and form under mechanical compression

A combination of physical and chemical processes is involved in determining the bacterial cell shape. In standard medium, Escherichia coli cells are rod-shaped, and maintain a constant diameter during exponential growth. Here, we demonstrate that by applying compressive forces to growing E. coli, cells no longer retain their rod-like shapes but grow and divide with a flat pancake-like geometry. The deformation is reversible: deformed cells can recover back to rod-like shapes in several generations after compressive forces are removed. During compression, the cell elongation rate, proliferation rate, DNA replication rate, and protein synthesis are not significantly altered from those of the normal rod-shaped cells. Quantifying the rate of cell wall growth under compression reveals that the cell wall growth rate depends on the local cell curvature. MreB not only influences the rate of cell wall growth, but also influences how the growth rate scales with cell geometry. The result is consistent with predictions of a mechanochemical model, and suggests an active mechanical role for MreB during cell wall growth. The developed compressive device is also useful for studying a variety of cells in unique geometries.

On growth and form of Bacillus subtilis biofilms

A general feature of mature biofilms is their highly heterogeneous architecture that partitions the microbial city into sectors with specific micro-environments. To understand how this heterogeneity arises, we have investigated the formation of a microbial community of the model organism Bacillus subtilis. We first show that the growth of macroscopic colonies is inhibited by the accumulation of ammoniacal by-products. By constraining biofilms to grow approximately as two-dimensional layers, we then find that the bacteria which differentiate to produce extracellular polymeric substances form tightly packed bacterial chains. In addition to the process of cellular chaining, the biomass stickiness also strongly hinders the reorganization of cells within the biofilm. Based on these observations, we then write a biomechanical model for the growth of the biofilm where the cell density is constant and the physical mechanism responsible for the spreading of the biomass is the pressure generated by the division of the bacteria. Besides reproducing the velocity field of the biomass across the biofilm, the model predicts that, although bacteria divide everywhere in the biofilm, fluctuations in the growth rates of the bacteria lead to a coarsening of the growing bacterial layer. This process of kinetic roughening ultimately leads to the formation of a rough biofilm surface exhibiting self-similar properties. Experimental measurements of the biofilm texture confirm these predictions.

Using first passage statistics to extract environmentally dependent amino acid correlations

In this work, we study the first passage statistics of amino acid primary sequences, that is the probability of observing an amino acid for the first time at a certain number of residues away from a fixed amino acid. By using this rich mathematical framework, we are able to capture the background distribution for an organism, and infer lengths at which the first passage has a probability that differs from what is expected. While many features of an organism's genome are due to natural selection, others are related to amino acid chemistry and the environment in which an organism lives, constraining the randomness of genomes upon which selection can further act. We therefore use this approach to infer amino acid correlations, and then study how these correlations vary across a wide range of organisms under a wide range of optimal growth temperatures. We find a nearly universal exponential background distribution, consistent with the idea that most amino acids are globally uncorrelated from other amino acids in genomes. When we are able to extract significant correlations, these correlations are reliably dependent on optimal growth temperature, across phylogenetic boundaries. Some of the correlations we extract, such as the enhanced probability of finding, for the first time, a cysteine three residues away from a cysteine or glutamic acid two residues away from an arginine, likely relate to thermal stability. However, other correlations, likely appearing on alpha helical surfaces, have a less clear physiochemical interpretation and may relate to thermal stability or unusual metabolic properties of organisms that live in a high temperature environment.