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Freites JA, Tobias DJ. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of the Eye Lens Water Channel Aquaporin 0 from Fish. J Phys Chem B 2024. [PMID: 39052430 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.4c03015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Aquaporin 0 (AQP0) plays a key role in water circulation in the eye lens through a variety of functions. In contrast to mammalian genomes, zebrafish contains two aqp0 genes leading to a separation of AQP0 multiple functions between the two gene products, Aqp0a and Aqp0b. A notable feature of the zebrafish AQP0 paralogs is the increased water permeability of Aqp0b relative to Aqp0a as well as a severa lfold increase relative to mammalian AQP0. Here, we report equilibrium molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on the microsecond timescale to identify the structural basis underlying the differences in water permeability between zebrafish AQP0 paralogs and between AQP0 mammalian and fish orthologs. Our simulations are able to reproduce the experimental trends in water permeability. Our results suggest that a substitution of a key Y23 residue in mammalian AQP0 for F23 in fish AQP0 orthologs introduces significant changes in the conformational dynamics of the CS-I structural motif, which, in conjunction with different levels of hydration of the channel vestibule, can account for the differences in permeabilities between fish and mammalian AQP0 orthologs and between zebrafish AQP0 paralogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Alfredo Freites
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1102 Natural Sciences 2, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Douglas J Tobias
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1102 Natural Sciences 2, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
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2
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Kreida S, Roche JV, Missel JW, Al-Jubair T, Hagströmer CJ, Wittenbecher V, Linse S, Gourdon P, Törnroth-Horsefield S. The role of phosphorylation in calmodulin-mediated gating of human AQP0. Biochem J 2024; 481:17-32. [PMID: 38032258 PMCID: PMC10903448 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20230158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Aquaporin-0 (AQP0) is the main water channel in the mammalian lens and is involved in accommodation and maintaining lens transparency. AQP0 binds the Ca2+-sensing protein calmodulin (CaM) and this interaction is believed to gate its water permeability by closing the water-conducting pore. Here, we express recombinant and functional human AQP0 in Pichia pastoris and investigate how phosphorylation affects the interaction with CaM in vitro as well as the CaM-dependent water permeability of AQP0 in proteoliposomes. Using microscale thermophoresis and surface plasmon resonance technology we show that the introduction of the single phospho-mimicking mutations S229D and S235D in AQP0 reduces CaM binding. In contrast, CaM interacts with S231D with similar affinity as wild type, but in a different manner. Permeability studies of wild-type AQP0 showed that the water conductance was significantly reduced by CaM in a Ca2+-dependent manner, whereas AQP0 S229D, S231D and S235D were all locked in an open state, insensitive to CaM. We propose a model in which phosphorylation of AQP0 control CaM-mediated gating in two different ways (1) phosphorylation of S229 or S235 abolishes binding (the pore remains open) and (2) phosphorylation of S231 results in CaM binding without causing pore closure, the functional role of which remains to be elucidated. Our results suggest that site-dependent phosphorylation of AQP0 dynamically controls its CaM-mediated gating. Since the level of phosphorylation increases towards the lens inner cortex, AQP0 may become insensitive to CaM-dependent gating along this axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Kreida
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Julie Winkel Missel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tamim Al-Jubair
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | | | - Sara Linse
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Pontus Gourdon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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3
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Rahimi Z, Koslowski T, Lohrasebi A. Water purification modeling by functionalized hourglass-shape multilayer nano-channel. J Mol Graph Model 2023; 125:108599. [PMID: 37586129 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2023.108599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, inspired by the overall structure and operation of the aquaporin channel, graphene-based nanochannels are proposed to be used as potential membranes for the water purification process. To this end, an hourglass-shaped channel has been designed using the three-layer porous graphene sheets and the effects of some main channel's elements, such as the channel bending angle and attached functional groups to it, on the filtration performance have been examined by using molecular dynamics simulations. We find that a suitable bending channel shape can improve the channel efficiency, i.e. both the water permeability and the ion rejection rate of the suitable bent channels were more than for the straight channels. In addition, regarding the different functionalized channels, the half-functionalized channels were more efficient than the completed functionalized ones. Furthermore, by monitoring the dynamics of water molecules as they pass through the narrowest part of the channels, it was found that water molecule rotation assists water transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeinab Rahimi
- Department of Physics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 8174673441, Iran; Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Koslowski
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 21, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Amir Lohrasebi
- Department of Physics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 8174673441, Iran.
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4
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Pluhackova K, Schittny V, Bürkner P, Siligan C, Horner A. Multiple pore lining residues modulate water permeability of
GlpF. Protein Sci 2022; 31:e4431. [PMID: 36173178 PMCID: PMC9490802 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristyna Pluhackova
- Stuttgart Center for Simulation Science, Cluster of Excellence EXC 2075 University of Stuttgart Stuttgart Germany
| | - Valentin Schittny
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich Basel Switzerland
| | - Paul‐Christian Bürkner
- Stuttgart Center for Simulation Science, Cluster of Excellence EXC 2075 University of Stuttgart Stuttgart Germany
| | | | - Andreas Horner
- Institute of Biophysics Johannes Kepler University Linz Austria
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5
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Kell DB. The Transporter-Mediated Cellular Uptake and Efflux of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Biotechnology Products: How and Why Phospholipid Bilayer Transport Is Negligible in Real Biomembranes. Molecules 2021; 26:5629. [PMID: 34577099 PMCID: PMC8470029 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26185629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the years, my colleagues and I have come to realise that the likelihood of pharmaceutical drugs being able to diffuse through whatever unhindered phospholipid bilayer may exist in intact biological membranes in vivo is vanishingly low. This is because (i) most real biomembranes are mostly protein, not lipid, (ii) unlike purely lipid bilayers that can form transient aqueous channels, the high concentrations of proteins serve to stop such activity, (iii) natural evolution long ago selected against transport methods that just let any undesirable products enter a cell, (iv) transporters have now been identified for all kinds of molecules (even water) that were once thought not to require them, (v) many experiments show a massive variation in the uptake of drugs between different cells, tissues, and organisms, that cannot be explained if lipid bilayer transport is significant or if efflux were the only differentiator, and (vi) many experiments that manipulate the expression level of individual transporters as an independent variable demonstrate their role in drug and nutrient uptake (including in cytotoxicity or adverse drug reactions). This makes such transporters valuable both as a means of targeting drugs (not least anti-infectives) to selected cells or tissues and also as drug targets. The same considerations apply to the exploitation of substrate uptake and product efflux transporters in biotechnology. We are also beginning to recognise that transporters are more promiscuous, and antiporter activity is much more widespread, than had been realised, and that such processes are adaptive (i.e., were selected by natural evolution). The purpose of the present review is to summarise the above, and to rehearse and update readers on recent developments. These developments lead us to retain and indeed to strengthen our contention that for transmembrane pharmaceutical drug transport "phospholipid bilayer transport is negligible".
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas B. Kell
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown St, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK;
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Building 220, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark
- Mellizyme Biotechnology Ltd., IC1, Liverpool Science Park, Mount Pleasant, Liverpool L3 5TF, UK
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6
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Lohrasebi A, Koslowski T. Modeling water purification by an aquaporin-inspired graphene-based nano-channel. J Mol Model 2019; 25:280. [PMID: 31463758 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-019-4160-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of water and particle transport through thin-film membranes is essential to improve the water permeability and the salt rejection rate of the purification progress. In this research, mimicking from the structure and operation of the aquaporin channel, graphene-based nano-channels were designed to be used as a water filter. The effects of variation of the channel's main elements, such as the width of the bottleneck and charges attached to the channel on its efficiency, were investigated via molecular dynamics simulations. We observe that the water flow through the channel decreases by increasing the charge, while the ion rejection rate of the channel is enhanced. Moreover, we find that the geometry and shape of the bottleneck part of the channel can affect the channel water flow and its selectivity. Finally, the pressure and the flow velocity in the channel were considered by using finite element models, and the results indicate that they are high at the entrance of the channel. The outcomes of this study can be used to improve the molecular knowledge of water desalination, which might be helpful in designing more efficient membranes. Graphical abstract As the piston pushed the solution to pass through the nano-channel, positive and negative ions are remained in the first box, by sensing electric field generated from the attached charges to the bottleneck part of the channel. Atomistic structure of channel is shown in the right part of the figure and the generated electric field is shown in the left part of the figure.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lohrasebi
- Department of Physics, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, 8174673441, Iran. .,School of Nano-Science, Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM), Tehran, 193955531, Iran.
| | - T Koslowski
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 23a, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
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Canessa Fortuna A, Zerbetto De Palma G, Aliperti Car L, Armentia L, Vitali V, Zeida A, Estrin DA, Alleva K. Gating in plant plasma membrane aquaporins: the involvement of leucine in the formation of a pore constriction in the closed state. FEBS J 2019; 286:3473-3487. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.14922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Agustina Canessa Fortuna
- Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológica (IQUIFIB) CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
- Departamento de Fisicomatemática Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Gerardo Zerbetto De Palma
- Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológica (IQUIFIB) CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
- Departamento de Fisicomatemática Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
- Instituo de Biotecnología Universidad Nacional de Hurlingham Villa Tesei Argentina
| | - Lucio Aliperti Car
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de Proteínas IQUIBICEN y Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Luciano Armentia
- Departamento de Fisicomatemática Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Victoria Vitali
- Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológica (IQUIFIB) CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
- Departamento de Fisicomatemática Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Ari Zeida
- Departamento de Bioquímica Facultad de Medicina Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research Universidad de la República Montevideo Uruguay
| | - Darío A. Estrin
- DQIAQF‐INQUIMAE Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Karina Alleva
- Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológica (IQUIFIB) CONICET Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
- Departamento de Fisicomatemática Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Universidad de Buenos Aires Argentina
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Cooperativity and allostery in aquaporin 0 regulation by Ca 2. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2019; 1861:988-996. [PMID: 30802427 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aquaporin 0 (AQP0) is essential for eye lens homeostasis as is regulation of its water permeability by Ca2+, which occurs through interactions with calmodulin (CaM), but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not well understood. Here, we use molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on the microsecond timescale under an osmotic gradient to explicitly model water permeation through the AQP0 channel. To identify any structural features that are specific to water permeation through AQP0, we also performed simulations of aquaporin 1 (AQP1) and a pure mixed lipid bilayer under the same conditions. The relative single-channel water osmotic permeability coefficients (pf) calculated from all of our simulations are in reasonable agreement with experiment. Our simulations allowed us to characterize the dynamics of the key structural elements that modulate the diffusion of water single-files through the AQP0 and AQP1 pores. We find that CaM binding influences the collective dynamics of the whole AQP0 tetramer, promoting the closing of both the extracellular and intracellular gates by inducing cooperativity between neighboring subunits.
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Hall JE, Freites JA, Tobias DJ. Experimental and Simulation Studies of Aquaporin 0 Water Permeability and Regulation. Chem Rev 2019; 119:6015-6039. [PMID: 31026155 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We begin with the history of aquaporin zero (AQP0), the most prevalent membrane protein in the eye lens, from the early days when AQP0 was a protein of unknown function known as Major Intrinsic Protein 26. We progress through its joining the aquaporin family as a water channel in its own right and discuss how regulation of its water permeability by pH and calcium came to be discovered experimentally and linked to lens homeostasis and development. We review the development of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of lipid bilayers and membrane proteins, including aquaporins, with an emphasis on simulation studies that have elucidated the mechanisms of water conduction, selectivity, and proton exclusion by aquaporins in general. We also review experimental and theoretical progress toward understanding why mammalian AQP0 has a lower water permeability than other aquaporins and the evolution of our present understanding of how its water permeability is regulated by pH and calcium. Finally, we discuss how MD simulations have elucidated the nature of lipid interactions with AQP0.
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10
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Ozu M, Galizia L, Acuña C, Amodeo G. Aquaporins: More Than Functional Monomers in a Tetrameric Arrangement. Cells 2018; 7:E209. [PMID: 30423856 PMCID: PMC6262540 DOI: 10.3390/cells7110209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Revised: 10/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaporins (AQPs) function as tetrameric structures in which each monomer has its own permeable pathway. The combination of structural biology, molecular dynamics simulations, and experimental approaches has contributed to improve our knowledge of how protein conformational changes can challenge its transport capacity, rapidly altering the membrane permeability. This review is focused on evidence that highlights the functional relationship between the monomers and the tetramer. In this sense, we address AQP permeation capacity as well as regulatory mechanisms that affect the monomer, the tetramer, or tetramers combined in complex structures. We therefore explore: (i) water permeation and recent evidence on ion permeation, including the permeation pathway controversy-each monomer versus the central pore of the tetramer-and (ii) regulatory mechanisms that cannot be attributed to independent monomers. In particular, we discuss channel gating and AQPs that sense membrane tension. For the latter we propose a possible mechanism that includes the monomer (slight changes of pore shape, the number of possible H-bonds between water molecules and pore-lining residues) and the tetramer (interactions among monomers and a positive cooperative effect).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Ozu
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina.
- Instituto de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada (IBBEA), Universidad de Buenos Aires y Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA CABA, Argentina.
| | - Luciano Galizia
- Instituto de investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427ARO, Argentina.
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Laboratorio de Canales Iónicos, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1427ARO, Argentina.
| | - Cynthia Acuña
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina.
- Instituto de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada (IBBEA), Universidad de Buenos Aires y Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA CABA, Argentina.
| | - Gabriela Amodeo
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina.
- Instituto de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada (IBBEA), Universidad de Buenos Aires y Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1428EGA CABA, Argentina.
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11
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Shen YX, Song W, Barden DR, Ren T, Lang C, Feroz H, Henderson CB, Saboe PO, Tsai D, Yan H, Butler PJ, Bazan GC, Phillip WA, Hickey RJ, Cremer PS, Vashisth H, Kumar M. Achieving high permeability and enhanced selectivity for Angstrom-scale separations using artificial water channel membranes. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2294. [PMID: 29895901 PMCID: PMC5997692 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04604-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic polymer membranes, critical to diverse energy-efficient separations, are subject to permeability-selectivity trade-offs that decrease their overall efficacy. These trade-offs are due to structural variations (e.g., broad pore size distributions) in both nonporous membranes used for Angstrom-scale separations and porous membranes used for nano to micron-scale separations. Biological membranes utilize well-defined Angstrom-scale pores to provide exceptional transport properties and can be used as inspiration to overcome this trade-off. Here, we present a comprehensive demonstration of such a bioinspired approach based on pillar[5]arene artificial water channels, resulting in artificial water channel-based block copolymer membranes. These membranes have a sharp selectivity profile with a molecular weight cutoff of ~ 500 Da, a size range challenging to achieve with current membranes, while achieving a large improvement in permeability (~65 L m-2 h-1 bar-1 compared with 4-7 L m-2 h-1 bar-1) over similarly rated commercial membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Xiao Shen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Woochul Song
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - D Ryan Barden
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - Tingwei Ren
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Chao Lang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Hasin Feroz
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Codey B Henderson
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Patrick O Saboe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Daniel Tsai
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Hengjing Yan
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Peter J Butler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - William A Phillip
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA
| | - Robert J Hickey
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Paul S Cremer
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Harish Vashisth
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - Manish Kumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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