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Pironet A, Vandewiele F, Vennekens R. Exploring the role of TRPM4 in calcium-dependent triggered activity and cardiac arrhythmias. J Physiol 2024; 602:1605-1621. [PMID: 37128952 DOI: 10.1113/jp283831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiac arrhythmias pose a major threat to a patient's health, yet prove to be often difficult to predict, prevent and treat. A key mechanism in the occurrence of arrhythmias is disturbed Ca2+ homeostasis in cardiac muscle cells. As a Ca2+-activated non-selective cation channel, TRPM4 has been linked to Ca2+-induced arrhythmias, potentially contributing to translating an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration into membrane depolarisation and an increase in cellular excitability. Indeed, evidence from genetically modified mice, analysis of mutations in human patients and the identification of a TRPM4 blocking compound that can be applied in vivo further underscore this hypothesis. Here, we provide an overview of these data in the context of our current understanding of Ca2+-dependent arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Pironet
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, VIB Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Frone Vandewiele
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, VIB Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rudi Vennekens
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, VIB Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Chakraborty P, Azam MA, Massé S, Lai PF, Rose RA, Ibarra Moreno CA, Riazi S, Nanthakumar K. Uncoupling cytosolic calcium from membrane voltage by transient receptor potential melastatin 4 channel (TRPM4) modulation: A novel strategy to treat ventricular arrhythmias. Heart Rhythm O2 2023; 4:725-732. [PMID: 38034891 PMCID: PMC10685170 DOI: 10.1016/j.hroo.2023.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The current antiarrhythmic paradigm is mainly centered around modulating membrane voltage. However, abnormal cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) signaling, which plays an important role in driving membrane voltage, has not been targeted for therapeutic purposes in arrhythmogenesis. There is clear evidence for bidirectional coupling between membrane voltage and intracellular Ca2+. Cytosolic Ca2+ regulates membrane voltage through Ca2+-sensitive membrane currents. As a component of Ca2+-sensitive currents, Ca2+-activated nonspecific cationic current through the TRPM4 (transient receptor potential melastatin 4) channel plays a significant role in Ca2+-driven changes in membrane electrophysiology. In myopathic and ischemic ventricles, upregulation and/or enhanced activity of this current is associated with the generation of afterdepolarization (both early and delayed), reduction of repolarization reserve, and increased propensity to ventricular arrhythmias. In this review, we describe a novel concept for the management of ventricular arrhythmias in the remodeled ventricle based on mechanistic concepts from experimental studies, by uncoupling the Ca2+-induced changes in membrane voltage by inhibition of this TRPM4-mediated current.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praloy Chakraborty
- Hull Family Cardiac Fibrillation Management Laboratory, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mohammed Ali Azam
- Hull Family Cardiac Fibrillation Management Laboratory, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stéphane Massé
- Hull Family Cardiac Fibrillation Management Laboratory, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Patrick F.H. Lai
- Hull Family Cardiac Fibrillation Management Laboratory, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robert A. Rose
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Carlos A. Ibarra Moreno
- Malignant Hyperthermia Investigation Unit, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sheila Riazi
- Malignant Hyperthermia Investigation Unit, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kumaraswamy Nanthakumar
- Hull Family Cardiac Fibrillation Management Laboratory, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Hu Y, Cang J, Hiraishi K, Fujita T, Inoue R. The Role of TRPM4 in Cardiac Electrophysiology and Arrhythmogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11798. [PMID: 37511555 PMCID: PMC10380800 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) channel is a non-selective cation channel that activates in response to increased intracellular Ca2+ levels but does not allow Ca2+ to pass through directly. It plays a crucial role in regulating diverse cellular functions associated with intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis/dynamics. TRPM4 is widely expressed in the heart and is involved in various physiological and pathological processes therein. Specifically, it has a significant impact on the electrical activity of cardiomyocytes by depolarizing the membrane, presumably via Na+ loading. The TRPM4 channel likely contributes to the development of cardiac arrhythmias associated with specific genetic backgrounds and cardiac remodeling. This short review aims to overview what is known so far about the TRPM4 channel in cardiac electrophysiology and arrhythmogenesis, highlighting its potential as a novel therapeutic target to effectively prevent and treat cardiac arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaopeng Hu
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Jiehui Cang
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Keizo Hiraishi
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Takayuki Fujita
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Ryuji Inoue
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
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Vandewiele F, Pironet A, Jacobs G, Kecskés M, Wegener J, Kerselaers S, Hendrikx L, Verelst J, Philippaert K, Oosterlinck W, Segal A, Van Den Broeck E, Pinto S, Priori SG, Lehnart SE, Nilius B, Voets T, Vennekens R. TRPM4 inhibition by meclofenamate suppresses Ca2+-dependent triggered arrhythmias. Eur Heart J 2022; 43:4195-4207. [PMID: 35822895 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehac354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Cardiac arrhythmias are a major factor in the occurrence of morbidity and sudden death in patients with cardiovascular disease. Disturbances of Ca2+ homeostasis in the heart contribute to the initiation and maintenance of cardiac arrhythmias. Extrasystolic increases in intracellular Ca2+ lead to delayed afterdepolarizations and triggered activity, which can result in heart rhythm abnormalities. It is being suggested that the Ca2+-activated nonselective cation channel TRPM4 is involved in the aetiology of triggered activity, but the exact contribution and in vivo significance are still unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS In vitro electrophysiological and calcium imaging technique as well as in vivo intracardiac and telemetric electrocardiogram measurements in physiological and pathophysiological conditions were performed. In two distinct Ca2+-dependent proarrhythmic models, freely moving Trpm4-/- mice displayed a reduced burden of cardiac arrhythmias. Looking further into the specific contribution of TRPM4 to the cellular mechanism of arrhythmias, TRPM4 was found to contribute to a long-lasting Ca2+ overload-induced background current, thereby regulating cell excitability in Ca2+ overload conditions. To expand these results, a compound screening revealed meclofenamate as a potent antagonist of TRPM4. In line with the findings from Trpm4-/- mice, 10 µM meclofenamate inhibited the Ca2+ overload-induced background current in ventricular cardiomyocytes and 15 mg/kg meclofenamate suppressed catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia-associated arrhythmias in a TRPM4-dependent manner. CONCLUSION The presented data establish that TRPM4 represents a novel target in the prevention and treatment of Ca2+-dependent triggered arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frone Vandewiele
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andy Pironet
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Griet Jacobs
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Miklos Kecskés
- Szentágothai Research Center, University of Pécs, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Jörg Wegener
- Heart Research Center Göttingen, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sara Kerselaers
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lio Hendrikx
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joren Verelst
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Koenraad Philippaert
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wouter Oosterlinck
- Research Unit of Experimental Cardiac Surgery, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andrei Segal
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Evy Van Den Broeck
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Silvia Pinto
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Silvia G Priori
- IRCCS ICS Maugeri, University of Pavia, I-27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Stephan E Lehnart
- Heart Research Center Göttingen, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Bernd Nilius
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Thomas Voets
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rudi Vennekens
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven (TRPLe), VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Herestraat 49 Box 802, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Pharmacological Modulation and (Patho)Physiological Roles of TRPM4 Channel-Part 2: TRPM4 in Health and Disease. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 15:ph15010040. [PMID: 35056097 PMCID: PMC8779181 DOI: 10.3390/ph15010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) is a unique member of the TRPM protein family and, similarly to TRPM5, is Ca2+ sensitive and permeable for monovalent but not divalent cations. It is widely expressed in many organs and is involved in several functions; it regulates membrane potential and Ca2+ homeostasis in both excitable and non-excitable cells. This part of the review discusses the currently available knowledge about the physiological and pathophysiological roles of TRPM4 in various tissues. These include the physiological functions of TRPM4 in the cells of the Langerhans islets of the pancreas, in various immune functions, in the regulation of vascular tone, in respiratory and other neuronal activities, in chemosensation, and in renal and cardiac physiology. TRPM4 contributes to pathological conditions such as overactive bladder, endothelial dysfunction, various types of malignant diseases and central nervous system conditions including stroke and injuries as well as in cardiac conditions such as arrhythmias, hypertrophy, and ischemia-reperfusion injuries. TRPM4 claims more and more attention and is likely to be the topic of research in the future.
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Theoretical Investigation of the Mechanism by which A Gain-of-Function Mutation of the TRPM4 Channel Causes Conduction Block. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168513. [PMID: 34445219 PMCID: PMC8395173 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In the heart, TRPM4 is most abundantly distributed in the conduction system. Previously, a single mutation, 'E7K', was identified in its distal N-terminus to cause conduction disorder because of enhanced cell-surface expression. It remains, however, unclear how this expression increase leads to conduction failure rather than abnormally enhanced cardiac excitability. To address this issue theoretically, we mathematically formulated the gating kinetics of the E7K-mutant TRPM4 channel by a combined use of voltage jump analysis and ionomycin-perforated cell-attached recording technique and incorporated the resultant rate constants of opening and closing into a human Purkinje fiber single-cell action potential (AP) model (Trovato model) to perform 1D-cable simulations. The results from TRPM4 expressing HEK293 cells showed that as compared with the wild-type, the open state is much preferred in the E7K mutant with increased voltage-and Ca2+-sensitivities. These theoretical predictions were confirmed by power spectrum and single channel analyses of expressed wild-type and E7K-mutant TRPM4 channels. In our modified Trovato model, the facilitated opening of the E7K mutant channel markedly prolonged AP duration with concomitant depolarizing shifts of the resting membrane potential in a manner dependent on the channel density (or maximal activity). This was, however, little evident in the wild-type TRPM4 channel. Moreover, 1D-cable simulations with the modified Trovato model revealed that increasing the density of E7K (but not of wild-type) TRPM4 channels progressively reduced AP conduction velocity eventually culminating in complete conduction block. These results clearly suggest the brady-arrhythmogenicity of the E7K mutant channel which likely results from its pathologically enhanced activity.
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Vigmond EJ, Neic A, Blauer J, Swenson D, Plank G. How Electrode Position Affects Selective His Bundle Capture: A Modelling Study. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2021; 68:3410-3416. [PMID: 33835914 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2021.3072334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In certain cardiac conduction system pathologies, like bundle branch block, block may be proximal, allowing for electrical stimulation of the more distal His bundle to most effectively restore activation. While selective stimulation of the His bundle is sought, surrounding myocardium may also be excited, resulting in nonselective pacing. The myocardium and His bundle have distinct capture thresholds, but the factors affecting whether His bundle pacing is selective or nonselective remain unelucidated. OBJECTIVE We investigated the properties which affect the capture thresholds in order to improve selective pacing. METHODS We performed biophysically detailed, computer simulations of a His fibre running through a septal wedge preparation to compute capture thresholds under various configurations of electrode polarity and orientation. RESULTS The myocardial capture threshold was close to that of the His bundle. The His fibre needed to intersect with the electrode tip to favor its activation. Inserting the electrode fully within the septum increased the myocardial capture threshold. Reversing polarity, to rely on anode break excitation, also increased the ease of selective pacing. CONCLUSION Model results were consistent with clinical observations. For selective pacing, the tip needs to be in contact with the His fibre and anodal stimulation is preferable. SIGNIFICANCE This study provides insight into helping establish electrode and stimulation parameters for selective His bundle pacing in patients.
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Yang PC, Jafri MS. Ca 2+ signaling in T lymphocytes: the interplay of the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, membrane potential, and CRAC channels on transcription factor activation. Heliyon 2020; 6:e03526. [PMID: 32181396 PMCID: PMC7063158 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell receptor stimulation initiates a cascade of reactions that cause an increase in intracellular calcium (Ca2+) concentration mediated through inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). To understand the basic mechanisms by which the immune response in T cells is activated, it is useful to understand the signaling pathways that contain important targets for drugs in a quantitative fashion. A computational model helps us to understand how the selected elements in the pathways interact with each other, and which component plays the crucial role in systems. We have developed a mathematical model to explore the mechanism for controlling transcription factor activity, which regulates gene expression, by the modulation of calcium signaling triggered during T cell activation. The model simulates the activation and modulation of Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels by mitochondrial dynamics and depletion of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) store, and also includes membrane potential in T-cells. The model simulates the experimental finding that increases in Ca2+ current enhances the activation of transcription factors and the Ca2+ influx through CRAC is also essential for the NFAT and NFκB activation. The model also suggests that plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA) controls a majority of the extrusion of Ca2+ and modulates the activation of CRAC channels. Furthermore, the model simulations explain how the complex interaction of the endoplasmic reticulum, membrane potential, mitochondria, and ion channels such as CRAC channels control T cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Chi Yang
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.,Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA
| | - M Saleet Jafri
- Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study and School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA.,Center for Biomedical Engineering and Technology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 20201, USA
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Pironet A, Syam N, Vandewiele F, Van den Haute C, Kerselaers S, Pinto S, Vande Velde G, Gijsbers R, Vennekens R. AAV9-Mediated Overexpression of TRPM4 Increases the Incidence of Stress-Induced Ventricular Arrhythmias in Mice. Front Physiol 2019; 10:802. [PMID: 31316392 PMCID: PMC6610516 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ca2+ activated non-selective (CAN) cation channels have been described in cardiomyocytes since the advent of the patch clamp technique. It has been hypothesized that this type of ion channel contributes to the triggering of cardiac arrhythmias. TRPM4 is to date the only molecular candidate for a CAN cation channel in cardiomyocytes. Its significance for arrhythmogenesis in living animals remains, however, unclear. In this study, we have tested whether increased expression of wild-type (WT) TRPM4 augments the risk of arrhythmias in living mice. Overexpression of WT TRPM4 was achieved via tail vein injection of adeno-associated viral vector serotype 9 (AAV9) particles, which have been described to be relatively cardiac specific in mice. Subsequently, we performed ECG-measurements in freely moving mice to determine their in vivo cardiac phenotype. Though cardiac muscle was transduced with TRPM4 viral particles, the majority of viral particles accumulated in the liver. We did not observe any difference in arrhythmic incidents during baseline conditions. Instead, WT mice that overexpress TRPM4 were more vulnerable to develop premature ventricular ectopic beats during exercise-induced β-adrenergic stress. Conduction abnormalities were rare and not more frequent in transduced mice compare to WT mice. Taken together, we provide evidence that overexpression of TRPM4 increases the susceptibility of living mice to stress-induced arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Pironet
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven, VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ninda Syam
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven, VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Frone Vandewiele
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven, VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Chris Van den Haute
- Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sara Kerselaers
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven, VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Silvia Pinto
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven, VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Greetje Vande Velde
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging & Pathology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rik Gijsbers
- Molecular Virology and Gene Therapy, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rudi Vennekens
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Research, TRP Research Platform Leuven, VIB Center for Brain and Disease, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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