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Mirra A, Gamez Maidanskaia E, Levionnois OL, Spadavecchia C. How Is the Nociceptive Withdrawal Reflex Influenced by Increasing Doses of Propofol in Pigs? Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1081. [PMID: 38612320 PMCID: PMC11010981 DOI: 10.3390/ani14071081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) is a physiological, polysynaptic spinal reflex occurring in response to noxious stimulations. Continuous NWR threshold (NWRt) tracking has been shown to be possibly useful in the depth of anesthesia assessment. The primary aim of this study was to describe how propofol modulates the NWRt over time in pigs. Five juvenile pigs (anesthetized three times) were included. An intravenous (IV) infusion of propofol (20 mg/kg/h) was started, and boli were administered to effect until intubation. Afterwards, the infusion was increased every ten minutes by 6 mg/kg/h, together with an IV bolus of 0.5 mg/kg, until reaching an electroencephalographic suppression ratio (SR) of between 10% and 30%. The NWRt was continuously monitored. For data analysis, the time span between 15 min following intubation and the end of propofol infusion was considered. Individual durations of propofol administration were divided into five equal time intervals for each pig (TI1-TI5). A linear regression between NWRt and TI was performed for each pig. Moreover, the baseline NWRt and slopes of the linear regression (b1) were compared among days using a Friedman Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance on Ranks. The NWRt always increased with the propofol dose (b1 = 4.71 ± 3.23; mean ± standard deviation). No significant differences were found between the baseline NWRt and the b1 values. Our results suggest that the NWRt may complement the depth of anesthesia assessment in pigs receiving propofol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Mirra
- Section of Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (E.G.M.); (O.L.L.); (C.S.)
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Trübenbacher L, Lindenberg N, Graf BM, Backmund M, Unglaub W, Lassen CL. Nociceptive Flexion Reflex Threshold is No Suitable Marker for Diagnosing Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia. J Pain Res 2024; 17:1067-1076. [PMID: 38505502 PMCID: PMC10948325 DOI: 10.2147/jpr.s421841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Opioid induced hyperalgesia (OIH) describes a state of altered pain sensation due to opioid exposure. It often occurs among persons with opioid use disorder receiving substitution therapy. Methods The purpose of this study was to find out, whether OIH diagnosis could be facilitated by an objective pain indicating marker: the Nociceptive Flexion Reflex (NFR). Forty persons with opioid use disorder, 20 of them maintained on methadone and 20 treated with buprenorphine, as well as a control group of 20 opioid-free subjects, were examined. It was aimed to find out whether and in which way these opioid agonists alter reflex threshold (NFR-T). A cold-pressor test was performed to investigate the prevalence of OIH. Furthermore, electrical stimulation and electromyography analyzation were used for NFR-T measurement. Subjective pain ratings were evaluated with a numeric rating scale. Results Significantly increased sensitivity to cold pressor pain was found in both maintenance groups when compared to their opioid-free counterparts (p < 0.001). Neither methadone nor buprenorphine showed any effect on NFR-T. This might be explained by the reflex approaching at the wrong location in the central nervous system. Consequently, NFR-T is not a suitable marker for diagnosing OIH. Conclusion Although methadone and buprenorphine have been proven to cause OIH, no effect on NFR-T was observed. A statistically significant effect could have been observed with a larger number of participants. Further research, with special focus on patients' adjuvant medication, should be conducted in the future, to facilitate diagnosis of OIH and provide appropriate pain management for maintenance patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Trübenbacher
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Pain Medicine, Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital of Regensburg, Regensburg, 93053, Germany
| | - Nicole Lindenberg
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Pain Medicine, Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital of Regensburg, Regensburg, 93053, Germany
| | - Bernhard M Graf
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Pain Medicine, Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital of Regensburg, Regensburg, 93053, Germany
| | - Markus Backmund
- “Praxiszentrum im Tal”, Tal 9, 80331, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Unglaub
- “medbo” District Hospital, Universitätsstraße 84, 93053, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christoph L Lassen
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Pain Medicine, Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital of Regensburg, Regensburg, 93053, Germany
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Jurth C, Lichtner G, Bienert T, von Dincklage F. The variability in nociceptive flexion reflex threshold measurement is mostly caused by probabilistic effects of the estimation algorithms: a simulation study. Int J Neurosci 2024:1-10. [PMID: 38315138 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2024.2312991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) and its threshold are frequently used to investigate spinal nociception in humans. Since this threshold (NFRT) is a probabilistic measure, specific algorithms are used for NFRT estimation based on the stochastic occurrence of reflexes at different stimulus intensities. We used a validated simulation model of the NFR to investigate the amount of NFRT measurement variability induced by different estimation algorithms in a steady setting of reduced external influences. METHODS We simulated the behavior of different estimation algorithms in subjects with an artificially steady baseline NFRT variability (standard deviation: 0 mA) or low baseline NFRT variability (standard deviation: 0.156 mA), equaling a quiet experimental setting. The obtained data were analyzed for NFRT measurement variability caused by the algorithms compared to the baseline variability reflecting other physiological influences. RESULTS The standard deviation of the NFRT estimated by the different algorithms ranged between 0.381 and 3.464 mA with 96.8% to 99.6% of the measurement variability attributed to the algorithm used. Out of the investigated algorithms the dynamic staircase algorithm was most precise. CONCLUSION The NFRT measurement variability observed during quiet and steady experimental sessions is mostly caused by the properties of the estimation algorithms, due to the probabilistic nature of the reflex occurrence. Our results give reference for choosing the optimal estimation algorithm to improve measurement precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Jurth
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gregor Lichtner
- Department of Anesthesia, Intensive Care, Emergency and Pain Medicine, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Thomas Bienert
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk von Dincklage
- Department of Anesthesia, Intensive Care, Emergency and Pain Medicine, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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Mylius V, Baars JH, Witt K, Benninger D, de Andrade DC, Kägi G, Bally JF, Brugger F. Deep Brain Stimulation Improves Parkinson's Disease-Associated Pain by Decreasing Spinal Nociception. Mov Disord 2024; 39:447-449. [PMID: 38071401 DOI: 10.1002/mds.29666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Dopamine exerts antinociceptive effects on pain in PD at cortical and spinal levels, whereas only cortical effects have been described for DBS, so far. By assessing the nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) threshold at medication on, and DBS ON and OFF in two patients, we showed that DBS additionally decreases spinal nociception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veit Mylius
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurorehabilitation, Valens, Switzerland
- Department of Neurology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Department of Neurology, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Jan Harald Baars
- Department of Anesthesia, Klinikum Neubrandenburg, Neubrandenburg, Germany
| | - Karsten Witt
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Research Center Neurosensory Science, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Evangelic Hospital Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - David Benninger
- Service of Neurology, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Ciampi de Andrade
- Center for Neuroplasticity and Pain (CNAP), Department of Health Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Georg Kägi
- Department of Neurology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Department of Neurology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Julien F Bally
- Service of Neurology, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Florian Brugger
- Department of Neurology, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Maidanskaia EG, Mirra A, Marchionatti E, Levionnois OL, Spadavecchia C. Antinociceptive, Sedative and Excitatory Effects of Intravenous Butorphanol Administered Alone or in Combination with Detomidine in Calves: A Prospective, Randomized, Blinded Cross-Over Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1943. [PMID: 37370454 DOI: 10.3390/ani13121943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The diagnostic and therapeutic procedures performed under sedation or general anesthesia in bovines are numerous. The analgesic drugs that can be legally used are few, making perioperative analgesia challenging. (2) Methods: Calves were administered butorphanol 0.1 mg kg-1 alone (SB) or combined with 0.02 mg kg-1 of a detomidine (DB) IV. The antinociceptive effect (trigeminocervical reflex threshold (TCRt)), as well as the behavioral (sedation and excitation) and physiological (heart and respiratory rate) changes were investigated. Five time windows were defined: BL (30 min pre-injection), T1 (0-30 min post-injection (PI)), T2 (31-60 min PI), T3 (61-90 min PI) and T4 (91-120 min PI). (3) Results: Both groups had a significative increase in TCRt at T1-T4 compared to the BL. The TCRt was significatively higher in DB than in SB at T1, T2 and T4. Heart rate decreased significatively in DB compared to that in BL. Calves were significantly more sedated in the DB group, and significantly more excited in the SB group compared to the BL. (4) Conclusions: Butorphanol alone has a statistically significant antinociceptive effect, but it elicits marked excitation, limiting its clinical applicability under this dosing regimen. The co-administration of detomidine eliminated the excitatory effect and induced consistent sedation and a significantly more pronounced antinociceptive effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Gámez Maidanskaia
- Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy Division, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alessandro Mirra
- Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy Division, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Emma Marchionatti
- Clinic for Ruminants, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Louis Levionnois
- Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy Division, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Spadavecchia
- Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy Division, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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Nedergaard RB, Hansen TM, Mørch CD, Niesters M, Dahan A, Drewes AM. Influence of tapentadol and oxycodone on the spinal cord and brain using electrophysiology: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2022; 88:5307-5316. [PMID: 35776835 PMCID: PMC9796052 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.15453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of tapentadol and oxycodone using the nociceptive withdrawal reflex and sensory evoked potentials. METHODS Twenty-one healthy volunteers completed a cross-over trial with oxycodone (10 mg), tapentadol (50 mg) extended-release tablets, or placebo treatment administered orally BID for 14 days. Electrical stimulations were delivered on the plantar side of the foot to evoke a nociceptive withdrawal reflex at baseline and post-interventions. Electromyography, recorded at tibialis anterior, and electroencephalography were recorded for analysis of: number of reflexes, latencies, and area under the curve of the nociceptive withdrawal reflex as well as latencies, amplitudes and dipole sources of the sensory-evoked potential. RESULTS Tapentadol decreased the odds ratio of eliciting nociceptive withdrawal reflex by -0.89 (P = .001, 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.46, -0.32), whereas oxycodone increased the latency of the N1 component of the sensory-evoked potential at the vertex by 12.5 ms (P = .003, 95% CI 3.35, 21.69). Dipole sources revealed that the anterior cingulate component moved caudally for all three interventions (all P < .02), and the insula components moved caudally in both the oxycodone and tapentadol arms (all P < .03). CONCLUSION A decrease in the number of nociceptive withdrawal reflex was observed during tapentadol treatment, possibly relating to the noradrenaline reuptake inhibition effects on the spinal cord. Both oxycodone and tapentadol affected cortical measures possible due to μ-opioid receptor agonistic effects evident in the dipole sources, with the strongest effect being mediated by oxycodone. These findings could support the dual effect analgesic mechanisms of tapentadol in humans as previously shown in preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasmus Bach Nedergaard
- Mech‐Sense, Department of Gastroenterology and HepatologyAalborg University HospitalAalborgDenmark,Department of Clinical MedicineAalborg UniversityAalborgDenmark
| | - Tine Maria Hansen
- Mech‐Sense, Department of Gastroenterology and HepatologyAalborg University HospitalAalborgDenmark,Department of Clinical MedicineAalborg UniversityAalborgDenmark
| | - Carsten Dahl Mørch
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Center for Neuroplasticity and Pain, SMI, School of MedicineAalborg UniversityAalborgDenmark
| | - Marieke Niesters
- Department of AnesthesiologyLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Albert Dahan
- Department of AnesthesiologyLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - Asbjørn Mohr Drewes
- Mech‐Sense, Department of Gastroenterology and HepatologyAalborg University HospitalAalborgDenmark,Department of Clinical MedicineAalborg UniversityAalborgDenmark
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7
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Jurth C, Zimmermann V, Schaaf L, Lezius F, Bublitz VK, Lichtner G, von Dincklage F. Investigation of behavioral pain scale, critical care pain observation tool, nociceptive flexion reflex and pupillary dilatation reflex as predictors of behavioral reactions to nociceptive procedures in critically ill patients unable to self-report pain. Eur J Pain 2022; 26:2074-2082. [PMID: 35959740 DOI: 10.1002/ejp.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Procedural pain is a common burden in critical care treatment and the prediction of nociceptive reactions remains challenging. Thus, we investigated the behavioral pain scale (BPS), the critical pain observational Tool (CPOT), the nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR), the pupillary dilation reflex (PDR), the Richmond agitation-sedation scale (RASS) as predictors of behavioral reactions to nociceptive procedures. METHODS In this monocentric, prospective, observational study we analyzed data of 128 critically ill adults unable to self-report pain to investigate the predictability of behavioral reactions to two procedures: endotracheal suctioning and turning. Next to routine clinical data, CPOT, BPS, PDR, NFR, RASS, propofol and sufentanil doses were recorded before the procedures. RESULTS For endotracheal suctioning, NFR, BPS, CPOT, RASS showed predictive performances significantly better than chance, but none of them performed significantly better than the sufentanil dose rate. For turning, BPS, CPOT, RASS showed predictive performances significantly better than chance, but only the RASS performed significantly better than the propofol dose rate. CONCLUSIONS Behavioral reactions to both investigated clinical procedures can be predicted by observational scales or nociceptive reflexes. For endotracheal suctioning, none of the predictors performed superior to using the sufentanil dose rate as a predictor. As using sufentanil as a predictor requires no extra effort in contrast to the other predictors, none of the here investigated tools seem advisable for predicting behavioral reactions to endotracheal suctioning. For patient turning, the RASS predicts reactions better than any other tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Jurth
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - V Zimmermann
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - L Schaaf
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - F Lezius
- HELIOS Klinikum Berlin-Buch, Klinik für Anästhesie, perioperative Medizin und Schmerztherapie, Berlin, Germany
| | - V K Bublitz
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - G Lichtner
- Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Klinik für Anästhesie, Intensiv-, Notfall- und Schmerzmedizin, Greifswald, Germany
| | - F von Dincklage
- Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Klinik für Anästhesie, Intensiv-, Notfall- und Schmerzmedizin, Greifswald, Germany
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Schick B, Schmid S, Mayer B, Wagner D, Walter S, Gruss S, Jungwirth B, Barth E. [Potential effect of the stimulus threshold level of the nociceptive flexion reflex (NFRT) on mortality and delirium incidence in the critically ill patient: a retrospective cohort analysis]. DIE ANAESTHESIOLOGIE 2022; 71:921-929. [PMID: 36166064 PMCID: PMC9514181 DOI: 10.1007/s00101-022-01206-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mortality and delirium in critically ill patients are affected by the provided analgesics and sedatives. The deeper the sedation and the higher the dose of analgesics applied, the more difficult it is to assess pain and the depth of sedation. Therefore, instrumental measurement methods, such as the measurement of the stimulus threshold of the nociceptive flexion reflex (NFRT), are becoming increasingly more important. OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study is to investigate a potential association between the level of the nociceptive flexion reflex, mortality, and the occurrence of delirium. MATERIAL AND METHODS By retrospectively analyzing a pilot data set of 57 ICU patients from the interdisciplinary surgical ICU of Ulm University Hospital surveyed between 11/2018 and 03/2020, a possible association between the NFRT, mortality, and the occurrence of delirium was calculated in an adjusted logistic regression model. Depending on the cut-off value, the stimulus threshold corridors result in the following comparison pairs: < 20 mA vs. 20-40 mA/20-50 mA/20-60 mA, > 40 mA vs. 20-40 mA, > 50 mA vs. 20-50 mA and > 60 mA vs. 20-60 mA. Results are presented as odds ratios (OR) adjusted for age, sex, height, TISS-28, SAPS II, RASS, BPS, and applied analgesics. Pain assessment was performed, in addition to the Behavioral Pain scale, ≥ 3 times daily by measuring NFRT. RESULTS A statistically nonsignificant tendency for an increase in mortality incidence occurred with an NFRT > 50 mA, versus a stimulus threshold corridor of 20-50 mA (OR 3.3, CI: 0.89-12.43, p = 0.07). A trend toward a reduction in delirium incidence occurred at an NFRT < 20 mA, versus a stimulus threshold corridor of 20-40 mA (OR 0.40, CI: 0.18-0.92, p = 0.03). CONCLUSION Based on the level of the NFRT, no recommendation can be made at this point to adjust the analgesic regimen of critically ill patients, who are unable to communicate. The observation of a tendency towards an increase in mortality at high stimulus thresholds or a reduction in the occurrence of delirium at low stimulus thresholds of the NFRT must be verified in standardized studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Schick
- grid.410712.10000 0004 0473 882XKlinik für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Sektion Interdisziplinäre Operative Intensivmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - S. Schmid
- grid.410712.10000 0004 0473 882XKlinik für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Sektion Interdisziplinäre Operative Intensivmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - B. Mayer
- grid.6582.90000 0004 1936 9748Institut für Epidemiologie und Medizinische Biometrie, Universität Ulm, Schwabstr. 13, 89075 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - D. Wagner
- grid.410712.10000 0004 0473 882XKlinik für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Sektion Interdisziplinäre Operative Intensivmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - S. Walter
- grid.6582.90000 0004 1936 9748Klinik für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, Sektion medizinische Psychologie, Universität Ulm, Frauensteige 6, 89075 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - S. Gruss
- grid.6582.90000 0004 1936 9748Klinik für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, Sektion medizinische Psychologie, Universität Ulm, Frauensteige 6, 89075 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - B. Jungwirth
- grid.410712.10000 0004 0473 882XKlinik für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Sektion Interdisziplinäre Operative Intensivmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Deutschland
| | - E. Barth
- grid.410712.10000 0004 0473 882XKlinik für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin, Sektion Interdisziplinäre Operative Intensivmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Deutschland
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Schick B, Mayer B, Walter S, Gruss S, Stitz R, Stitz P, Barth E. Measurement of the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold in critically ill patients - a randomized observational pilot study. BMC Anesthesiol 2021; 21:270. [PMID: 34740318 PMCID: PMC8569046 DOI: 10.1186/s12871-021-01490-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pain detection and treatment is a major challenge in the care of critically ill patients, rendered more complex by the need to take into consideration the risk of insufficient or excessive analgesia. The nociceptive flexion reflex threshold (NFRT) has become the established basis for measuring the level of analgesia in the perioperative context. However, it remains unclear whether NFRT measurement can be usefully applied to mechanically ventilated, analgosedated critically ill patients who are unable to communicate. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether there is an association between the NFRT measurement and the Behavioral Pain Scale (BPS) in critically ill, analgosedated, and mechanically ventilated patients and whether the NFRT measurement can also detect potential excessive analgesia. Methods This prospective, observational, randomized single-center pilot study included patients admitted to the surgical Intensive Care Unit of University Hospital Ulm, Germany, all of whom were analgosedated and intubated. Major exclusion criteria were defined as the need for the administration of neuromuscular blocking agents or neurological diseases associated with peripheral nerve conduction restriction. Initial NFRT and BPS measurements were conducted within 12 h after admission. A structured pain assessment was performed at least twice daily until extubation throughout the observation period thereafter (Group A: BPS + NFRT, Group B: BPS). Results 114 patients were included in the study. NFRT is associated negatively with BPS. NFRT was almost twice as high in patients with a Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale (RASS) score of -5 than in patients with a RASS score ≥ -4 (RASS -5 – NFRT: 59.40 vs. RASS -4 – NFRT: 29.00, p < 0.001). Conclusions NFRT measurement is associated negatively with the BPS in critically ill patients. NFRT measurement provides guidance for the evaluation of nociceptive processes in patients with RASS scores ≤ −4, in whom analgesia level is often difficult to assess. However, in order to identify excessive analgesia and derive therapeutic consequences, it is necessary to gradually decrease analgesics and sedatives until a stimulus threshold is reached at which the patient does not feel pain. Trial Registration Retrospectively registered in the German Clinical Trials Register, registration number DRKS00021149, date of registration: March 26, 2020. https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00021149. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12871-021-01490-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Schick
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Benjamin Mayer
- Institute of Epidemiology and Medical Biometry, Ulm University, Schwabstraße 13, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Steffen Walter
- Department of Medical Psychology, Ulm University, Frauensteige 6, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Sascha Gruss
- Department of Medical Psychology, Ulm University, Frauensteige 6, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Ronald Stitz
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Pauline Stitz
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Eberhard Barth
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081, Ulm, Germany
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Prediction of Nociception in Children Using the Nociceptive Flexion Reflex Threshold and the Bispectral Index-A Prospective Exploratory Observational Study. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2021; 22:e461-e470. [PMID: 33710075 DOI: 10.1097/pcc.0000000000002701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The prediction of patient responses to potentially painful stimuli remains a challenge in PICUs. We investigated the ability of the paintracker analgesia monitor (Dolosys GmbH, Berlin, Germany) measuring the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold, the cerebral sedation monitor bispectral index (Medtronic, Dublin, Ireland), the COMFORT Behavior, and the modified Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability Scale scores to predict patient responses following a noxious stimulus. DESIGN Single-center prospective exploratory observational study. SETTING Fourteen-bed multidisciplinary PICU at the University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Germany. PATIENTS Children on mechanical ventilation receiving analgesic and sedative medications. INTERVENTIONS Noxious stimulation by way of endotracheal suctioning. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Two independent observers assessed modified Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability and COMFORT Behavior Scales scores during noxious stimulation (n = 59) in 26 patients. Vital signs were recorded immediately before and during noxious stimulation; bispectral index and nociceptive flexion reflex threshold were recorded continuously. Mean prestimulation bispectral index (55.5; CI, 44.2-66.9 vs 39.9; CI, 33.1-46.8; p = 0.007), and COMFORT Behavior values (9.5; CI, 9.2-13.2 vs 7.5; CI, 6.7-8.5; p = 0.023) were significantly higher in observations with a response than in those without a response. Prediction probability (Pk) values for patient responses were high when the bispectral index was used (Pk = 0.85) but only fair when the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold (Pk = 0.69) or COMFORT Behavior Scale score (Pk = 0.73) was used. A logistic mixed-effects model confirmed the bispectral index as a significant potential predictor of patient response (p = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS In our sample of ventilated children in the PICU, bispectral index and nociceptive flexion reflex threshold provided good and fair prediction accuracy for patient responses to endotracheal suctioning.
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Abstract
The intraoperative dosing of opioids is a challenge in routine anesthesia as the potential effects of intraoperative overdosing and underdosing are not completely understood. In recent years an increasing number of monitors were approved, which were developed for the detection of intraoperative nociception and therefore should enable a better control of opioid titration. The nociception monitoring devices use either continuous hemodynamic, galvanic or thermal biosignals reflecting the balance between parasympathetic and sympathetic activity, measure the pupil dilatation reflex or the nociceptive flexor reflex as a reflexive response to application of standardized nociceptive stimulation. This review article presents the currently available nociception monitors. Most of these monitoring devices detect nociceptive stimulations with higher sensitivity and specificity than changes in heart rate, blood pressure or sedation depth monitoring devices. There are only few studies on the effect of opioid titration guided by nociception monitoring and the possible postoperative benefits of these devices. All nociception monitoring techniques are subject to specific limitations either due to perioperative confounders (e.g. hypovolemia) or special accompanying medical conditions (e.g. muscle relaxation). There is an ongoing discussion about the clinical relevance of nociceptive stimulation in general anesthesia and the effect on patient outcome. Initial results for individual monitor systems show a reduction in opioid consumption and in postoperative pain level. Nevertheless, current evidence does not enable the routine use of nociception monitoring devices to be recommended as a clear beneficial effect on long-term outcome has not yet been proven.
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Mauritz MD, Uhlenberg F, Vettorazzi E, Ebenebe CU, Singer D, Deindl P. Impact of Propofol Bolus Administration on the Nociceptive Flexion Reflex Threshold and Bispectral Index in Children—A Case Series. CHILDREN 2021; 8:children8080639. [PMID: 34438531 PMCID: PMC8393661 DOI: 10.3390/children8080639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We analyzed the impact of propofol administration during continuous sedation and analgesia on the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold (NFRT) and Bispectral Index (BIS) in ventilated children. We examined patients who received propofol before planned endotracheal suctioning. Patients were clinically assessed using the modified Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability (mFLACC) scale and COMFORT-B (Comfort Behavior) scale. We continuously recorded the NFRT and BIS. We recorded 23 propofol administrations in eight patients with an average age of 8.6 ± 3.5 years. The median (minimum-maximum) scores for the mFLACC scale and COMFORT-B scale were 0 (0–5) and 6 (6–17), respectively, before the bolus. The administration of a weight-adjusted propofol bolus of 1.03 ± 0.31 mg/kg resulted in an increase in NFRT and burst-suppression ratio; BIS and electromyogram values decreased. Changes from baseline (95% CI) after propofol bolus administration were BIS −23.9 (−30.8 to −17.1), EMG -10.5 dB (−13.3 to −7.7), SR 14.8 % (5.6 to 24.0) and NFRT 13.6 mA (5.5 to 21.7). Further studies are needed to determine whether sedated children may benefit from objective pain and sedation monitoring with BIS and NFRT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian David Mauritz
- Department of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany; (F.U.); (C.U.E.); (D.S.); (P.D.)
- Department of General Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Children’s and Adolescents’ Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University, 45711 Datteln, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-2363-9750
| | - Felix Uhlenberg
- Department of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany; (F.U.); (C.U.E.); (D.S.); (P.D.)
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine, Itzehoe Medical Center, 25524 Itzehoe, Germany
| | - Eik Vettorazzi
- Department of Medical Biometry and Epidemiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany;
| | - Chinedu Ulrich Ebenebe
- Department of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany; (F.U.); (C.U.E.); (D.S.); (P.D.)
| | - Dominique Singer
- Department of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany; (F.U.); (C.U.E.); (D.S.); (P.D.)
| | - Philipp Deindl
- Department of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care Medicine, University Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany; (F.U.); (C.U.E.); (D.S.); (P.D.)
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Antinociceptive effects of levomethadone in standing horses sedated with romifidine. Vet Anaesth Analg 2021; 48:451-460. [PMID: 33685821 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2020.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the antinociceptive effect of a bolus of intravenous levomethadone administered to horses during romifidine constant rate infusion (CRI). STUDY DESIGN Prospective, randomized, masked, crossover experimental study. ANIMALS A group of eight adult Warmblood horses (seven geldings, one mare) aged 6.6 ± 4.4 years, weighing 548 ± 52 kg [mean ± standard deviation (SD)]. METHODS Levomethadone 0.1 mg kg-1 or an equivalent volume of saline (control) was administered intravenously to standing horses 60 minutes after starting a romifidine CRI. Blood samples to quantify romifidine and levomethadone plasma concentrations by capillary electrophoresis were collected up to 150 minutes after levomethadone administration. The nociceptive withdrawal reflex threshold (NWRT) was determined continuously using an automated threshold tracking device. Sedation and cardiopulmonary variables were assessed at regular intervals. A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) model was elaborated. Data are presented as mean ± SD or median (interquartile range, 25%-75%) where appropriate. Differences between groups were considered statistically significant for p < 0.05. RESULTS Horses exhibited higher NWRTs after levomethadone administration than after saline (123 ± 9% versus 101 ± 9% relative to baseline, p < 0.05). The PK-PD model identified a contribution of levomethadone to the NWRT increase. Effect size was variable among individuals. No adverse reactions to levomethadone administration were observed. A slight effect of levomethadone on sedation scores was evident for the 60 minutes following its administration. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE A single injection of levomethadone has the potential to increase the NWRT during romifidine CRI in horses and can be administered in combination with α2-adrencoceptor agonists to enhance antinociception in horses. However, individual variation is marked.
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Siegenthaler J, Pleyers T, Raillard M, Spadavecchia C, Levionnois OL. Effect of Medetomidine, Dexmedetomidine, and Their Reversal with Atipamezole on the Nociceptive Withdrawal Reflex in Beagles. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E1240. [PMID: 32708294 PMCID: PMC7401557 DOI: 10.3390/ani10071240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives were: (1) to compare the antinociceptive activity of dexmedetomidine and medetomidine, and (2) to investigate its modulation by atipamezole. This prospective, randomized, blinded experimental trial was carried out on eight beagles. During the first session, dogs received either medetomidine (MED) (0.02 mg kg-1 intravenously (IV)] or dexmedetomidine (DEX) [0.01 mg kg-1 IV), followed by either atipamezole (ATI) (0.1 mg kg-1) or an equivalent volume of saline (SAL) administered intramuscularly 45 min later. The opposite treatments were administered in a second session 10-14 days later. The nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) threshold was determined using a continuous tracking approach. Sedation was scored (0 to 21) every 10 min. Both drugs (MED and DEX) increased the NWR thresholds significantly up to 5.0 (3.7-5.9) and 4.4 (3.9-4.8) times the baseline (p = 0.547), at seven (3-11) and six (4-9) minutes (p = 0.938), respectively. Sedation scores were not different between MED and DEX during the first 45 min (15 (12-17), p = 0.67). Atipamezole antagonized sedation within 25 (15-25) minutes (p = 0.008) and antinociception within five (3-6) minutes (p = 0.008). Following atipamezole, additional analgesics may be needed to maintain pain relief.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle Siegenthaler
- Section of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Department of Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (J.S.); (T.P.); (M.R.); (C.S.)
| | - Tekla Pleyers
- Section of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Department of Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (J.S.); (T.P.); (M.R.); (C.S.)
| | - Mathieu Raillard
- Section of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Department of Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (J.S.); (T.P.); (M.R.); (C.S.)
- University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia
| | - Claudia Spadavecchia
- Section of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Department of Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (J.S.); (T.P.); (M.R.); (C.S.)
| | - Olivier Louis Levionnois
- Section of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Department of Clinical Veterinary Sciences, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (J.S.); (T.P.); (M.R.); (C.S.)
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Linde LD, Duarte FC, Esmaeili H, Hamad A, Masani K, Kumbhare DA. The nociceptive flexion reflex: a scoping review and proposed standardized methodology for acquisition in those affected by chronic pain. Br J Pain 2020; 15:102-113. [PMID: 33633857 DOI: 10.1177/2049463720913289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) is used in neurophysiological research as an objective measure of nociception. NFR thresholds are reduced in numerous chronic pain pathologies, which are indicative of common central hyperexcitability within conditions. However, variation exists in both the NFR assessment and determinants of NFR threshold among research groups. Our purpose was to provide a review of the recent literature to (a) confirm the NFR threshold's efficacy in identifying those with chronic pain compared to controls and (b) provide a narrative synthesis on the current methodology used to assess the NFR in clinical populations. We conducted a review of multiple databases (MEDLINE, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Google Scholar and Cochrane Library), including articles that reported controlled clinical studies of humans, in English, comparing NFR thresholds within chronic pain conditions to matched control subjects, published since the last NFR review in 2010. Our search resulted in nine studies included in our narrative synthesis and eight studies included in a meta-analysis. There was a significant pooled standardized mean difference in NFR threshold between chronic pain conditions and controls (-0.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1.33 to -0.55, p < 0.0001), with substantial heterogeneity of pooled estimates (I 2 = 87%, τ 2 = 0.41, Q = 76.13, the degrees of freedom (df) = 11, p < 0.0001). Significant variations in participant positioning, stimulation parameters and determinants of the NFR threshold were evident among included studies. We provided a narrative synthesis on the methodologies of included studies, as a recommendation for future studies in the assessment of the NFR in chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas D Linde
- ICORD, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Felipe Ck Duarte
- Division of Research and Innovation, Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hamid Esmaeili
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Abdul Hamad
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kei Masani
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dinesh A Kumbhare
- Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Diez Bernal S, Studer N, Thormann W, Spadavecchia C, Levionnois O. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling of the antinociceptive effect of a romifidine infusion in standing horses. Vet Anaesth Analg 2019; 47:129-136. [PMID: 31810766 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2019.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of a romifidine infusion on antinociception and sedation, and to investigate its relationship with plasma concentration. STUDY DESIGN Prospective, experimental, nonrandomized trial. ANIMALS A total of 10 healthy adult warmblood horses. METHODS Romifidine (loading dose: 0.08 mg kg-1, infusion: 0.03 mg kg-1 hour-1) was administered intravenously over 120 minutes. Romifidine plasma concentrations were determined by capillary electrophoresis. Sedation quality and nociceptive thresholds were evaluated at regular time points before, during and after romifidine administration. The nociceptive withdrawal reflex was elicited by electrical stimulation at the thoracic limb using a dedicated threshold tracking algorithm and recorded by electromyography at the deltoid muscle. A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model was established and correlation between romifidine plasma concentration and main output variables tested. RESULTS A two compartmental model best described the romifidine pharmacokinetic profile. The nociceptive thresholds increased compared with baseline in all horses from 10 to 146 minutes after romifidine administration (p < 0.001). Peak effect reached 5.7 ± 2.3 times the baseline threshold (mean ± standard deviation). The effect/concentration relationship followed a counter-clockwise hysteresis loop. The mean plasma concentration was weakly correlated to nociceptive thresholds (p < 0.0071, r = 0.392). The sedative effects were significant until 160 minutes but variable, not correlated to plasma concentration (p = 0.067), and weakly correlated to nociceptive thresholds (p < 0.0001, r = 0.33). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Romifidine elicited a marked antinociceptive effect. Romifidine-induced antinociception appeared with a delayed onset and lasted longer than sedation after discontinuing its administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Diez Bernal
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Nicole Studer
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Spadavecchia
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Levionnois
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Long term reliability of nociceptive withdrawal reflex thresholds. J Neurosci Methods 2019; 320:44-49. [PMID: 30871985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2019.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) is a polysynaptic spinal reflex protecting the body from harmful stimuli. Two different methods to assess its' threshold (NWR-T) have been part of clinical trials concerning the evaluation of the nociceptive system in the human body. NWR-T's are gathered by stimulation at the sole of the foot and over the sural pathway. Consequently, EMG analyzes the muscle activity over the biceps femoris and tibialis anterior muscle. Past studies favor stimulation at the sole of the foot. NEW METHOD The two methods were compared concerning retest-reliability and subjective pain ratings. The retest-reliability was tested over a period of 21 days using an up-down staircase method. Reliability was evaluated with a Bland Altman agreement analysis. Subjective pain ratings were evaluated with a numeric rating scale (NRS). RESULTS NWR-T assessment was successful for all subjects. The EMG muscle activity had larger reflex amplitudes for measurements of the tibialis anterior muscle. NWR-T values showed greater variability than NRS values. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD The retest-reliability over a period of 21 days showed stable NWR-T results for both stimulation sites, but superior reliability was gathered with stimulation at the sole of the foot. Subjects rated stimulation over the sural pathway as more painful. CONCLUSIONS The NWR-T upholds reliable measurements over a longer period of time and seems to be a stable measure for pain condition. Reliability estimations, EMG recordings, and subject's rating show stimulation at the sole of the foot could be the better choice.
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Jurth C, Dörig TM, Lichtner G, Golebiewski A, Jakuscheit A, von Dincklage F. Development, validation and utility of a simulation model of the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold. Clin Neurophysiol 2017; 129:572-583. [PMID: 29367166 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2017.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A variety of algorithms is used for nociceptive flexion reflex threshold (NFRT) estimation, but their estimation accuracy is unknown. We developed a computer based simulation model of the NFRT to quantify and compare the accuracy of available estimation algorithms. METHODS This simulation model is based on basic characteristics of the NFRT and specified by data collected from 60 healthy volunteers. We validated the model by comparing simulated data with data obtained independently in another volunteer population. The model was used to quantify the accuracy of previously published NFRT estimation algorithm for three NFRT variabilities representing sensory deprivation, distraction and general anaesthesia. RESULTS The dynamic staircase algorithm obtained most accurate NFRT estimates during all NFRT variabilities. The number of stimuli applied can be chosen higher to increase estimate precision or lower to reduce measurement time. CONCLUSIONS Our simulation model is a valid tool to measure the accuracy of NFRT estimation algorithms. It can be applied to analyse and develop algorithms. The dynamic staircase algorithm shows the highest precision in NFRT estimation and is recommended for NFRT studies. SIGNIFICANCE Using optimized NFRT estimation algorithms increases precision in clinical and experimental NFRT studies and might therefore reduce the measurement effort necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Jurth
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt Operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany. https://www.charite.de
| | - Teresa M Dörig
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt Operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gregor Lichtner
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt Operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Golebiewski
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt Operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Axel Jakuscheit
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt Operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk von Dincklage
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt Operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
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Jakuscheit A, Posch MJ, Gkaitatzis S, Neumark L, Hackbarth M, Schneider M, Lichtner G, Baars JH, von Dincklage F. Utility of nociceptive flexion reflex threshold and bispectral index to predict movement responses under propofol anaesthesia. Somatosens Mot Res 2017; 34:139-144. [DOI: 10.1080/08990220.2017.1343189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Axel Jakuscheit
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias J. Posch
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefanos Gkaitatzis
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lisa Neumark
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mark Hackbarth
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Schneider
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gregor Lichtner
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan H. Baars
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk von Dincklage
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Intraoperative monitoring of analgesia using nociceptive reflexes correlates with delayed extubation and immediate postoperative pain. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2017; 34:297-305. [DOI: 10.1097/eja.0000000000000597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Observation of time-dependent psychophysical functions and accounting for threshold drifts. Atten Percept Psychophys 2015; 77:1440-7. [PMID: 25810158 PMCID: PMC4415976 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-015-0865-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Methods to obtain estimates of psychophysical functions are used in numerous fields, such as audiology, vision, and pain. Neurophysiological and psychological processes underlying this function are assumed to remain stationary throughout a psychophysical experiment. However, violation of this assumption (e.g., due to habituation or changing decisional factors) likely affects the estimates of psychophysical parameters. We used computer simulations to study how non-stationary processes, resulting in a time-dependent psychophysical function, affect threshold and slope estimates. Moreover, we propose methods to improve the estimation quality when stationarity is violated. A psychophysical detection experiment was modeled as a stochastic process ruled by a logistic psychophysical function. The threshold was modeled to drift over time and was defined as either a linear or nonlinear function. Threshold and slope estimates were obtained by using three estimation procedures: a static procedure assuming stationarity, a relaxed procedure accounting for linear effects of time, and a threshold tracking paradigm. For illustrative purposes, data acquired from two human subjects were used to estimate their thresholds and slopes using all estimation procedures. Threshold estimates obtained by all estimations procedures were similar to the mean true threshold. However, due to threshold drift, the slope was underestimated by the static procedure. The relaxed procedure only underestimated the slope when the threshold drifted nonlinearly over time. The tracking paradigm performed best and therefore, we recommend using the tracking paradigm in human psychophysical detection experiments to obtain estimates of the threshold and slope and to identify the mode of non-stationarity.
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von Dincklage F. [Monitoring of pain, nociception, and analgesia under general anesthesia: Relevance, current scientific status, and clinical practice]. Anaesthesist 2015; 64:758-64. [PMID: 26385883 DOI: 10.1007/s00101-015-0080-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 07/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To avoid negative effects of painful stimuli under general anesthesia, an adequate analgesia is needed. Since both overdosing and underdosing of analgesics may lead to negative consequences, an optimal dosing is crucial, requiring a continuous monitoring of the balance between the ongoing nociception and the level of analgesia. METHODS This review describes current methods for the monitoring of nociception and analgesia as well as their inherent differences. RESULTS Monitors of nociception register organic responses that are triggered through painful stimuli and therefore allow the detection of phases of excessive nociception during inadequate analgesia. In contrast, monitors of analgesia register nociception-specific organic responses that are triggered through test stimuli and allow a preemptive adaption of the level of analgesia, before a painful clinical stimulus is applied, but require the application of test stimuli. Preliminary proof-of-concept studies were able to demonstrate the potential of the here described methods; however, an effect on the clinical outcome of patients has not yet been shown for either of the two types of monitoring. CONCLUSIONS For the routine application of monitors of nociception and analgesia in daily clinical practice, large clinical studies are necessary, proving a positive outcome effect. Without reliable parameters for nociception and analgesia it was hitherto impossible to perform such studies. The progress made in recent years generates optimism that in the not too distant future the currently available methods to monitor nociception and analgesia might improve to a level of reliability to allow them to be used to investigate the clinical outcome relevance of nociception and analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- F von Dincklage
- Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Virchow Klinikum, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353, Berlin, Deutschland.
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Lichtner G, Golebiewski A, Schneider MH, von Dincklage F. Introduction and validation of a less painful algorithm to estimate the nociceptive flexion reflex threshold. Brain Res 2015; 1608:147-56. [PMID: 25749484 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR) is a widely used tool to investigate spinal nociception for scientific and diagnostic purposes, but its clinical use is currently limited due to the painful measurement procedure, especially restricting its applicability for patients suffering from chronic pain disorders. Here we introduce a less painful algorithm to assess the NFR threshold. Application of this new algorithm leads to a reduction of subjective pain ratings by over 30% compared to the standard algorithm. We show that the reflex threshold estimates resulting from application of the new algorithm can be used interchangeably with those of the standard algorithm after adjusting for the constant difference between the algorithms. Furthermore, we show that the new algorithm can be applied at shorter interstimulus intervals than are commonly used with the standard algorithm, since reflex threshold values remain unchanged and no habituation effects occur when reducing the interstimulus interval for the new algorithm down to 3s. Finally we demonstrate the utility of the new algorithm to investigate the modulation of nociception through different states of attention. Taken together, the here presented new algorithm could increase the utility of the NFR for investigation of nociception in subjects who were previously not able to endure the measurement procedure, such as chronic pain patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Lichtner
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Anna Golebiewski
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin H Schneider
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk von Dincklage
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Anästhesiologie mit Schwerpunkt operative Intensivmedizin, Campus Charité Mitte und Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
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Abstract
Psychophysical thresholds reflect the state of the underlying nociceptive mechanisms. For example, noxious events can activate endogenous analgesic mechanisms that increase the nociceptive threshold. Therefore, tracking thresholds over time facilitates the investigation of the dynamics of these underlying mechanisms. Threshold tracking techniques should use efficient methods for stimulus selection and threshold estimation. This study compares, in simulation and in human psychophysical experiments, the performance of different combinations of adaptive stimulus selection procedures and threshold estimation methods. Monte Carlo simulations were first performed to compare the bias and precision of threshold estimates produced by three different stimulus selection procedures (simple staircase, random staircase, and minimum entropy procedure) and two estimation methods (logistic regression and Bayesian estimation). Logistic regression and Bayesian estimations resulted in similar precision only when the prior probability distributions (PDs) were chosen appropriately. The minimum entropy and simple staircase procedures achieved the highest precision, while the random staircase procedure was the least sensitive to different procedure-specific settings. Next, the simple staircase and random staircase procedures, in combination with logistic regression, were compared in a human subject study (n = 30). Electrocutaneous stimulation was used to track the nociceptive perception threshold before, during, and after a cold pressor task, which served as the conditioning stimulus. With both procedures, habituation was detected, as well as changes induced by the conditioning stimulus. However, the random staircase procedure achieved a higher precision. We recommend using the random staircase over the simple staircase procedure, in combination with logistic regression, for nonstationary threshold tracking experiments.
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Reliability of subjective pain ratings and nociceptive flexion reflex responses as measures of conditioned pain modulation. Pain Res Manag 2014; 19:93-6. [PMID: 24555177 DOI: 10.1155/2014/698246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endogenous modulation of pain can be assessed through conditioned pain modulation (CPM), which can be quantified using subjective pain ratings or nociceptive flexion reflexes. However, to date, the test-retest reliability has only been investigated for subjective pain ratings. OBJECTIVE To compare the test-retest reliability of CPM-induced changes, measured using subjective pain ratings and nociceptive flexion reflexes, to provide a reliable scoring parameter for future studies. METHOD A total of 40 healthy volunteers each received painful electrical stimuli to the sural nerve to elicit nociceptive flexion reflexes. Reflex sizes and subjective pain ratings were recorded before and during the immersion of the contralateral hand in hot water to induce CPM as well as innocuous water as control. Measurements were repeated in a retest 28 days later. RESULTS Intraclass correlation coefficients showed good test-retest reliabilities of CPM during the hot water stimulus for both scoring parameters. Subjective pain ratings also correlated between test and retest during the control stimulus. CONCLUSIONS Subjective pain ratings and nociceptive flexion reflexes show comparable test-retest reliabilities, but they reflect different components of CPM. While subjective pain ratings appear to incorporate cognitive influences to a larger degree, reflex responses appear to reflect spinal nociception more purely.
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von Dincklage F, Olbrich H, Baars JH, Rehberg B. Habituation of the nociceptive flexion reflex is dependent on inter-stimulus interval and stimulus intensity. J Clin Neurosci 2013; 20:848-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2012.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Spadavecchia C, Haga H, Ranheim B. Concentration-dependent isoflurane effects on withdrawal reflexes in pigs and the role of the stimulation paradigm. Vet J 2012; 194:375-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Revised: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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von Dincklage F, Correll C, Schneider MHN, Rehberg B, Baars JH. Utility of Nociceptive Flexion Reflex Threshold, Bispectral Index, Composite Variability Index and Noxious Stimulation Response Index as measures for nociception during general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2012; 67:899-905. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2012.07187.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Introducing the reflex probability maps in the quantification of nociceptive withdrawal reflex receptive fields in humans. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2011; 21:67-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Biurrun Manresa JA, Hansen J, Andersen OK. Development of a data acquisition and analysis system for nociceptive withdrawal reflex and reflex receptive fields in humans. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2010; 2010:6619-24. [PMID: 21096727 DOI: 10.1109/iembs.2010.5627139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
A system for data acquisition and analysis of nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) and reflex receptive field (RRF) is introduced. The system is constituted by hardware and software components. The hardware consists of devices commonly used for electrical stimulation and electromyographic and kinematic data recording. The software comprises two different programs: Wirex, a stand-alone program developed in LabView for data acquisition, and Reflex Lab, a Matlab-based toolbox for data analysis. These programs were developed to maximize the potential of the hardware, turning it into a complete stimulation system capable of automatic quantification of NWR and RRF. In this article, a brief review of NWR and RRF analysis is presented, the system features are described in detail and its present and future applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Biurrun Manresa
- Integrative Neuroscience group within the Center for Sensory-Motor Interaction (SMI), Dept. of Health, Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers vej 7, Aalborg Øst, 9220 Denmark.
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Biurrun Manresa JA, Neziri AY, Curatolo M, Arendt-Nielsen L, Andersen OK. Test–retest reliability of the nociceptive withdrawal reflex and electrical pain thresholds after single and repeated stimulation in patients with chronic low back pain. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 111:83-92. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1634-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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von Dincklage F, Velten H, Rehberg B, Baars J. Monitoring of the responsiveness to noxious stimuli during sevoflurane mono-anaesthesia by using RIII reflex threshold and bispectral index. Br J Anaesth 2010; 104:740-5. [DOI: 10.1093/bja/aeq099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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von Dincklage F, Hackbarth M, Mager R, Rehberg B, Baars J. Monitoring of the responsiveness to noxious stimuli during anaesthesia with propofol and remifentanil by using RIII reflex threshold and bispectral index. Br J Anaesth 2010; 104:201-8. [DOI: 10.1093/bja/aep357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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