Trans-sodium crocetinate improves outcomes in rodent models of occlusive and hemorrhagic stroke

Crocetin Delays Brain and Body Aging by Increasing Cellular Energy Levels in Aged C57BL/6J Mice

Aging is usually accompanied by mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced energy levels, and cell death in the brain and other tissues. Mitochondria play a crucial role in maintaining cellular energy through oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). However, OXPHOS is impaired as the mitochondrial oxygen supply decreases with age. We explored whether pharmacologically increased oxygen diffusion by crocetin can restore OXPHOS and help delay the aging of the brain and other vital organs. We found that aged mice treated with crocetin for four months displayed significantly improved memory behavior, neuromuscular coordination, and ATP and NAD+ levels in the brain and other vital organs, leading to an increased median life span. The transcriptomic analysis of hippocampi from crocetin-treated mice revealed that enhanced brain energy level was caused by the upregulation of genes linked to OXPHOS, and their expression was close to that in young mice. The chronic treatment of aged astrocytes also showed improved mitochondrial membrane potential and energy state of the cells. Moreover, chronic treatment with crocetin did not cause any oxidative stress. Our data suggest that restoring OXPHOS and the normal energy state of the cell can delay aging and enhance longevity. Therefore, molecules such as crocetin should be further explored to treat age-related diseases.

Trans-sodium crocetinate suppresses apoptotic and oxidative response following myoglobin-induced cytotoxicity in HEK-293 cells

Objectives

Rhabdomyolysis (RM) is a serious fatal syndrome. The RM leads to acute kidney injury (AKI) as a fatal complication. The belief is that RM-induced AKI is triggered by myoglobin (MB). MB activates oxidative and apoptotic pathways. Trans-sodium crocetinate (TSC) is obtained from saffron. It has anti-oxidant and renoprotective effects. This research was designed to assess the mechanisms of MB-induced cytotoxicity in HEK-293 cells (human embryonic kidney cells) as well as the possible effects of TSC against MB-induced cytotoxicity.

Materials and Methods

HEK-293 cells were exposed to diverse concentrations of TSC (2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 µM) for 24 hr. Then, MB (9 mg/ml) was added to the cells. After 24 hr, cell viability was measured through MTT, and the values of ROS generation were calculated using DCFH-DA assay. Also, autophagy and apoptosis markers in cells were assessed by western blot analysis.

Results

MB decreased viability and increased ROS levels in HEK-293 cells. However, pretreatment of HEK-293 cells with TSC for 24 hr reduced the cytotoxicity and ROS production caused by MB. Furthermore, MB enhanced both the apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3 and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio) and autophagy markers (LC3II/I ratio and Beclin-1) in HEK-293 cells. On the other hand, TSC pretreatment condensed the levels of autophagy and apoptosis criteria in response to MB cytotoxicity.

Conclusion

TSC has a positive effect in preventing MB-induced cytotoxicity in HEK-293 cells by increasing anti-oxidant activity and regulation of apoptotic and autophagy signaling pathways.

The Anti-hypoxia Potentials of Trans-sodium Crocetinate in Hypoxiarelated Diseases: A Review

Crocetin is a kind of apocarotenoid carboxylic acid extracted from saffron (Crocus sativus L.), which is effective in upregulating tissue oxygenation. However, crocetin is difficult to solubilize. It was shown that the trans isomer of crocetin is effective in improving oxygen diffusivity, while its cis isomer appears not to be. Hence, the isolated trans isomer of crocetin or trans-sodium crocetinate (TSC) can be used instead of crocetin. It is shown that TSC can upregulate hypoxic tissue oxygenation and be effective in treating some hypoxia-related diseases. Moreover, experimental and clinical studies have reported no adverse effects following TSC treatment, even at high doses. The current study will discuss the potential role of TSC in hemorrhagic shock, ischemia, brain tumor radiotherapy, and others.

Effect of trans-sodium crocetinate on contrast-induced cytotoxicity in HEK-293 cells

Objectives

Contrast media (CM) are used for diagnostic or therapeutic intervention purposes in medicine. The main adverse reaction after the administration of CM is contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN). This complication is the third cause of renal failure after hospital treatment. The current study is designed to investigate the possible protective effect of trans-sodium crocetinate (TSC), derived from carotenoid crocetin, against sodium amidotrizoate/meglumine amidotrizoate (SAMA) induced cytotoxicity in HEK-293 cells.

Materials and Methods

HEK-293 cells were incubated with different concentrations of TSC (1, 2.5, 5, 10, 25, and 50 µM, for 48 hr) and then SAMA (7 mgI/ml, for 24 hr) was added. The cell viability, intracellular ROS, and phosphatidyl serine exposure were detected by MTT assay, DCFH-DA, and annexin V-FITC/PI method, respectively. The P-ERK/ERK ratio, apoptosis (Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cleaved caspase-3), and autophagy (LC3 II/I ratio and beclin-1) markers in cells were evaluated by the western blot method.

Results

The exposure of HEK-293 cells to SAMA reduced viability, increased apoptotic cells, enhanced ROS production, and subsequently decreased P-ERK/ERK ratio. Similarly, SAMA enhanced apoptosis (Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cleaved caspase-3) and autophagy (LC3 II/I ratio and beclin-1) markers in HEK-293 cells. The pretreatment of cells with TSC before exposure to SAMA significantly attenuated contrast-induced cytotoxicity. TSC reduced intracellular ROS production and activated the phosphorylation of ERK. In addition, TSC decreased the levels of apoptosis and autophagy proteins.

Conclusion

The pretreatment of HEK-293 cells with TSC can decrease contrast-induced cytotoxicity through antioxidant effect and modulate ERK, apoptosis, and autophagy pathways.

Crocetin antagonizes parthanatos in ischemic stroke via inhibiting NOX2 and preserving mitochondrial hexokinase-I

Parthanatos is one of the major pathways of programmed cell death in ischemic stroke characterized by DNA damage, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP) activation, and poly (ADP-ribose) (PAR) formation. Here we demonstrate that crocetin, a natural potent antioxidant compound from Crocus sativus, antagonizes parthanatos in ischemic stroke. We reveal that mechanistically, crocetin inhibits NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) activation to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and PAR production at the early stage of parthanatos. Meanwhile we demonstrate that PARylated hexokinase-I (HK-I) is a novel substrate of E3 ligase RNF146 and that crocetin interacts with HK-I to suppress RNF146-mediated HK-I degradation at the later stage of parthanatos, preventing mitochondrial dysfunction and DNA damage that ultimately trigger the irreversible cell death. Our study supports further development of crocetin as a potential drug candidate for preventing and/or treating ischemic stroke.

Crocins for Ischemic Stroke: A Review of Current Evidence

Crocins (CRs) and the related active constituents derived from Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) have demonstrated protective effects against cerebral ischemia and ischemic stroke, with various bioactivities including neuroprotection, anti-neuroinflammation, antioxidant, and cardiovascular protection. Among CRs, crocin (CR) has been shown to act on multiple mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke, including mitochondrial apoptosis, nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of B cells pathway, S100 calcium-binding protein B, interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor-A. CR is generally safe and well-tolerated. Pharmacokinetic studies indicate that CR has poor bioavailability and needs to convert to crocetin (CC) in order to cross the blood-brain barrier. Clinical studies have shown the efficacy of saffron and CR in treating various conditions, including metabolic syndrome, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and coronary artery disease. There is evidence supporting CR as a treatment for ischemic stroke, although further studies are needed to confirm their efficacy and safety in clinical settings.

PRIMED2 Preclinical Evidence Scoring Tool to Assess Readiness for Translation of Neuroprotection Therapies

Many neuroprotective and other therapies for treatment of acute ischemic stroke have failed in translation to human studies, indicating a need for more rigorous, multidimensional quality assessment of the totality of preclinical evidence supporting a therapy prior to conducting human trials. A consensus panel of stroke preclinical model and human clinical trial experts assessed candidate items for the translational readiness scale, compiled from prior instruments (STAIR, ARRIVE, CAMARADES, RoB 2) based on importance, reliability, and feasibility. Once constructed, the tool was applied by two independent raters to four current candidate acute stroke therapies, including two pharmacologic agents [nerinetide and trans-sodium crocetinate] and two device interventions [cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation and fastigial nucleus stimulation]. The Preclinical evidence of Readiness In stroke Models Evaluating Drugs and Devices (PRIMED²) assessment tool rates the totality of evidence available from all reported preclinical animal stroke model studies in 11 domains related to diversity of tested animals, time windows, feasibility of agent route of delivery, and robustness of effect magnitude. Within each content domain, clearly operationalized rules assign strength of evidence ratings of 0–2. When applied to the four assessed candidate agents, inter-rater reliability was high (kappa = 0.88), and each agent showed a unique profile of evidentiary strengths and weaknesses. The PRIMED² assessment tool provides a multidimensional assessment of the cumulative preclinical evidence for a candidate acute stroke therapy on factors judged important for successful basic-to-clinical translation. Further evaluation and refinement of this tool is desirable to improve successful translation of therapies for acute stroke.

Trans sodium crocetinate alleviates ischemia/reperfusion-induced myocardial oxidative stress and apoptosis via the SIRT3/FOXO3a/SOD2 signaling pathway

Trans sodium crocetinate (TSC) has been reported to exert a protective effect against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, whether TSC protects against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury remains unknown. Herein, we found that TSC treatment reduced myocardial infract size and elevated serum LDH and CK activities of MI/R rats. TSC administration attenuated oxidative stress in MI/R rats and H9C2 cells exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R). TSC administration relieved I/R-induced myocardial apoptosis in vivo and in vitro, as evidenced by reduced number of TUNEL positive cells, accompanying with marked decreases in caspase-3 activity and Bax protein level and an increase in Bcl-2 protein level. TSC treatment markedly increased SIRT3 activity and SIRT3 and SOD2 protein levels, and could also diminished the phosphorylation of FOXO3a protein. Additionally, TSC treatment attenuated the acetylation of FOXO3a and SOD2 protein. But, these effects were obviously blocked by SIRT3 knockdown. Besides, SIRT3 knockdown blocked the cardioprotective effect of TSC on OGD/R-induced oxidative stress, apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction in vitro. In summary, TSC alleviates I/R-induced myocardial oxidative stress and apoptosis via the SIRT3/FOXO3a/SOD2 signaling pathway. Our study suggests that TSC may become a novel drug for the treatment of MI/R injury.

Electroacupuncture protects against ischemic stroke by reducing autophagosome formation and inhibiting autophagy through the mTORC1-ULK1 complex-Beclin1 pathway

In a previous study by our group, we demonstrated that electroacupuncture (EA) activates the class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway. There is considerable evidence that the downstream mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) plays an important role in autophagy following ischemic stroke. The aim of the present study was to determine whether EA exerts a neuroprotective effect through mTORC1-mediated autophagy following ischemia/reperfusion injury. Our results revealed that EA at the LI11 and ST36 acupoints attenuated motor dysfunction, improved neurological deficit outcomes and decreased the infarct volumes. The number of autophagosomes, autolysosomes and lysosomes was decreased following treatment with EA. Simultaneously, the levels of the autophagosome membrane maker, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta (LC3B)II/I, Unc-51-like kinase 1 (ULK1), autophagy related gene 13 Atg13) and Beclin1 (ser14) were decreased, whereas mTORC1 expression was increased in the peri-infarct cortex. These results suggest that EA protects against ischemic stroke through the inhibition of autophagosome formation and autophagy, which is mediated through the mTORC1-ULK complex-Beclin1 pathway.

Perihematomal Cellular Injury Is Reduced by Trans-sodium Crocetinate in a Model of Intracerebral Hemorrhage

The carotenoid compound trans-sodium crocetinate (TSC) has been shown to increase oxygenation in various tissues, including the brain. Notably, TSC can enhance oxygenation under conditions of reduced blood flow, thus attenuating the depth of an ischemic challenge. This study examined the impact of TSC on neuronal loss in an animal model of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Utilizing a rat model of collagenase injection, TSC was shown to reduce perihematomal cellular loss after ICH, as assessed by Fluoro-Jade B staining in tissue sections. This is the first evidence demonstrating that TSC is capable of limiting hemorrhagic injury to neurons in the brain. The finding supports the concept that TSC may represent a candidate therapeutic for early intervention regardless of whether a stroke is hemorrhagic or ischemic in nature.