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Pedreañez A, Carrero Y, Vargas R, Hernandez-Fonseca JP, Mosquera-Sulbaran J. Possible role of metformin as an antidepressant in diabetes. J Affect Disord 2024; 351:349-355. [PMID: 38286229 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Metformin (MET) is a drug used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes due to its insulin receptor sensitizing properties and anti-hepatic gluconeogenesis effect. One of the comorbidities in diabetes is the depression. This review aimed at summarizing the results of the available MET, depression and diabetes studies to clarify the possible role of MET in the depression during diabetes. METHODS A bibliographic search on PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Cochrane Central for studies referring to MET, depression and diabetes. RESULTS Several studies have associated depression to the chronic inflammation that characterizes diabetes. Additionally MET is an anti-inflammatory molecule that generally acts by activating AMPK and inhibiting the NF-kB factor. In the context of diabetes, MET can act directly as an anti-inflammatory drug as well as inhibiting other pro-inflammatory molecules. In this regard, MET may inhibit the pro-inflammatory effects of angiotensin II. By facilitating the action of insulin and reducing hepatic gluconeogenesis, MET reduces circulating glucose levels, decreasing the formation of advanced glycation end products and therefore inflammation. During diabetes, the gut microbiota and the permeability of the intestinal barrier are altered, causing high levels of circulating lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which induce inflammation. MET can normalize the microbiota and the intestinal barrier permeability reducing the levels of LPS and inflammation. Clinical and experimental studies show the anti-depressant effect of MET mediated by different mechanisms both at the peripheral level and in the central nervous system. CONCLUSION Therefore, MET as an anti-inflammatory drug can decrease symptoms of depression and represents a therapeutic approach to improve the psychological state of patients with diabetes. Additionally, insulin also has an anti-inflammatory effect that could act together with MET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Pedreañez
- Cátedra de Inmunología, Escuela de Bioanálisis, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Yenddy Carrero
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Renata Vargas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Juan P Hernandez-Fonseca
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela; Servicio de Microscopia Electrónica del Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC) Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Mosquera-Sulbaran
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela.
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Gong S, Deng F. Renin-angiotensin system: The underlying mechanisms and promising therapeutical target for depression and anxiety. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1053136. [PMID: 36761172 PMCID: PMC9902382 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1053136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Emotional disorders, including depression and anxiety, contribute considerably to morbidity across the world. Depression is a serious condition and is projected to be the top contributor to the global burden of disease by 2030. The role of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in hypertension and emotional disorders is well established. Evidence points to an association between elevated RAS activity and depression and anxiety, partly through the induction of neuroinflammation, stress, and oxidative stress. Therefore, blocking the RAS provides a theoretical basis for future treatment of anxiety and depression. The evidence for the positive effects of RAS blockers on depression and anxiety is reviewed, aiming to provide a promising target for novel anxiolytic and antidepressant medications and/or for improving the efficacy of currently available medications used for the treatment of anxiety and depression, which independent of blood pressure management.
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Tashev R, Ivanova M. Involvement of hippocampal angiotensin 1 receptors in anxiety-like behaviour of olfactory bulbectomized rats. Pharmacol Rep 2018; 70:847-852. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Bermúdez J, Valero N, Mosquera J, Vargas R, Hernández-Fonseca JP, Quiroz Y, Godoy R. Role of angiotensin II in experimental Venezuelan equine encephalitis in rats. Arch Virol 2015; 160:2395-405. [PMID: 26156105 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-015-2521-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes. The inflammation induced by the VEE virus is associated with a high mortality rate in mice. Angiotensin II (Ang II), a pro-inflammatory molecule, is produced in the normal rat brain. There is no information about the role of this molecule in the inflammatory events occurring during VEE and the effect of inflammation on the mortality rate in VEE-virus-infected rats. This study was designed to determine the role of Ang II in VEE and to analyze the effect of inflammation on mortality in infected rats. Two groups of rats were studied: 1) Virus-infected animals and controls (n = 60) were treated with losartan (a blocker of the Ang II-AT1 receptor) or with pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC, an inhibitor of NF-κB) or left untreated and analyzed for morbidity and mortality. 2) Animals treated using the same protocol (n = 30) were sacrificed at day 4 postinfection and analyzed by immunohistochemistry and histopathology and for cytokine production. Increased expression of Ang II, ICAM-1, ED-1 and cytokines (IL-1α, MCP-1, IL-6 and IL-10) in infected animals was observed. The main histopathology findings were dilated capillaries and capillaries with endothelial detachment. Losartan and PDTC reduced the expression of IL-1α, MCP-1, and IL-10, and the number of dilated capillaries and capillaries with endothelial detachment. Survival analysis showed that 100% mortality was reached earlier in infected rats treated with losartan (day 14) or PDTC (day 11) than in untreated animals (day 19). These findings suggest that Ang II plays a role in VEE and that brain inflammation is protective against viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Bermúdez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela
| | - Nereida Valero
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela.,Sociedad Venezolana de Microbiología, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Jesús Mosquera
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela.
| | - Renata Vargas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela
| | - Juan P Hernández-Fonseca
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Apartado Postal 23, Maracaibo, 4001, Zulia, Venezuela
| | - Yasmir Quiroz
- Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Maracaibo, Venezuela
| | - Rosario Godoy
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Ciencia y Salud, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
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5
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Bild W, Hritcu L, Stefanescu C, Ciobica A. Inhibition of central angiotensin II enhances memory function and reduces oxidative stress status in rat hippocampus. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 43:79-88. [PMID: 23266710 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
While it is now well established that the independent brain renin-angiotensin system (RAS) has some important central functions besides the vascular ones, the relevance of its main bioactive peptide angiotensin II (Ang II) on the memory processes, as well as on oxidative stress status is not completely understood. The purpose of the present work was to evaluate the effects of central Ang II administration, as well as the effects of Ang II inhibition with either AT1 and AT 2 receptor specific blockers (losartan and PD-123177, respectively) or an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (captopril). These effects were studied on the short-term memory (assessed through Y-maze) or long-term memory (as determined in passive avoidance) and on the oxidative stress status of the hippocampus. Our results demonstrate memory deficits induced by the administration of Ang II, as showed by the significant decrease of the spontaneous alternation in Y-maze (p=0.015) and latency-time in passive avoidance task (p=0.001) when compared to saline. On the other side, the administration of all the aforementioned Ang II blockers significantly improved the spontaneous alternation in Y-maze task, while losartan also increased the latency time as compared to saline in step-through passive avoidance (p=0.042). Also, increased oxidative stress status was induced in the hippocampus by the administration of Ang II, as demonstrated by increased levels of lipid peroxidation markers (malondialdehyde-MDA concentration) (p<0.0001) and a decrease in both antioxidant enzymes determined: superoxide dismutase-SOD (p<0.0001) and glutathione peroxidase-GPX (p=0.01), as compared to saline. Additionally, the administration of captopril resulted in an increase of both antioxidant enzymes and decreased levels of lipid peroxidation (p=0.001), while PD-123177 significantly decreased MDA concentration (p>0.0001) vs. saline. Moreover, significant correlations were found between all of the memory related behavioral parameters and the main oxidative stress markers from the hippocampus, which is known for its implication in the processes of memory and also where RAS components are well expressed. This could be relevant for the complex interactions between Ang II, behavioral processes and neuronal oxidative stress, and could generate important therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walther Bild
- Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115, Iasi, Romania
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6
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Abstract
The effects of brain AngII (angiotensin II) depend on AT(1) receptor (AngII type 1 receptor) stimulation and include regulation of cerebrovascular flow, autonomic and hormonal systems, stress, innate immune response and behaviour. Excessive brain AT(1) receptor activity associates with hypertension and heart failure, brain ischaemia, abnormal stress responses, blood-brain barrier breakdown and inflammation. These are risk factors leading to neuronal injury, the incidence and progression of neurodegerative, mood and traumatic brain disorders, and cognitive decline. In rodents, ARBs (AT(1) receptor blockers) ameliorate stress-induced disorders, anxiety and depression, protect cerebral blood flow during stroke, decrease brain inflammation and amyloid-β neurotoxicity and reduce traumatic brain injury. Direct anti-inflammatory protective effects, demonstrated in cultured microglia, cerebrovascular endothelial cells, neurons and human circulating monocytes, may result not only in AT(1) receptor blockade, but also from PPARγ (peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ) stimulation. Controlled clinical studies indicate that ARBs protect cognition after stroke and during aging, and cohort analyses reveal that these compounds significantly reduce the incidence and progression of Alzheimer's disease. ARBs are commonly used for the therapy of hypertension, diabetes and stroke, but have not been studied in the context of neurodegenerative, mood or traumatic brain disorders, conditions lacking effective therapy. These compounds are well-tolerated pleiotropic neuroprotective agents with additional beneficial cardiovascular and metabolic profiles, and their use in central nervous system disorders offers a novel therapeutic approach of immediate translational value. ARBs should be tested for the prevention and therapy of neurodegenerative disorders, in particular Alzheimer's disease, affective disorders, such as co-morbid cardiovascular disease and depression, and traumatic brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Saavedra
- Section on Pharmacology, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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7
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Nikolaidis MG, Kyparos A, Spanou C, Paschalis V, Theodorou AA, Vrabas IS. Redox biology of exercise: an integrative and comparative consideration of some overlooked issues. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:1615-25. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.067470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Summary
The central aim of this review is to address the highly multidisciplinary topic of redox biology as related to exercise using an integrative and comparative approach rather than focusing on blood, skeletal muscle or humans. An attempt is also made to re-define ‘oxidative stress’ as well as to introduce the term ‘alterations in redox homeostasis’ to describe changes in redox homeostasis indicating oxidative stress, reductive stress or both. The literature analysis shows that the effects of non-muscle-damaging exercise and muscle-damaging exercise on redox homeostasis are completely different. Non-muscle-damaging exercise induces alterations in redox homeostasis that last a few hours post exercise, whereas muscle-damaging exercise causes alterations in redox homeostasis that may persist for and/or appear several days post exercise. Both exhaustive maximal exercise lasting only 30 s and isometric exercise lasting 1–3 min (the latter activating in addition a small muscle mass) induce systemic oxidative stress. With the necessary modifications, exercise is capable of inducing redox homeostasis alterations in all fluids, cells, tissues and organs studied so far, irrespective of strains and species. More importantly, ‘exercise-induced oxidative stress’ is not an ‘oddity’ associated with a particular type of exercise, tissue or species. Rather, oxidative stress constitutes a ubiquitous fundamental biological response to the alteration of redox homeostasis imposed by exercise. The hormesis concept could provide an interpretative framework to reconcile differences that emerge among studies in the field of exercise redox biology. Integrative and comparative approaches can help determine the interactions of key redox responses at multiple levels of biological organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michalis G. Nikolaidis
- Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110 Serres, Greece
| | - Antonios Kyparos
- Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110 Serres, Greece
| | - Chrysoula Spanou
- Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110 Serres, Greece
| | - Vassilis Paschalis
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Thessaly, Karies, 42100 Trikala, Greece
| | - Anastasios A. Theodorou
- Laboratory of Exercise, Health and Human Performance, Research Center, European University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Ioannis S. Vrabas
- Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 62110 Serres, Greece
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Vargas R, Rincón J, Pedreañez A, Viera N, Hernández-Fonseca JP, Peña C, Mosquera J. Role of angiotensin II in the brain inflammatory events during experimental diabetes in rats. Brain Res 2012; 1453:64-76. [PMID: 22464881 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Revised: 12/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Hyperglycemia during diabetes is one of the causes of encephalopathy. However, diabetes causes chronic inflammatory complications and among them is peripheral neuropathy. Since, diabetes is one of the major risk factors for cerebrovascular disease, inflammatory process could take place in central nervous system (CNS). To test that hypothesis, experiments to determine inflammatory events in CNS during streptozotocin-induced diabetes were performed. Diabetes was induced by intravenous injection of streptozotocin (STZ). Brain angiotensin II (Ang II), monocyte/macrophage (ED-1 positive cells), CD8, the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), the lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and superoxide anion were determined by hystochemical and immunohistochemical methods. Nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA) and catalase activity were measured in brain homogenates by enzymatic and biochemical methods. This research showed increased expressions of Ang II, ICAM-1, LFA-1 and CD8 positive cells in diverse zones of cerebrum and cerebellum of diabetic rats (week 8). Treatment of diabetic animals with losartan or enalapril reduced the expression of those molecules. Values of lipid peroxidation, nitrite content and superoxide anion expression remained similar to control rats. Only decreased activity of catalase was observed in diabetic animals, but losartan or enalapril failed to modify catalase activity. This study suggests the presence of Ang II-mediated brain inflammatory events in diabetes probably mediated by AT1 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Vargas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Clínicas "Dr. Américo Negrette", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
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9
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Pedreañez A, Arcaya JL, Carrizo E, Rincón J, Viera N, Peña C, Vargas R, Mosquera J. Experimental depression induces renal oxidative stress in rats. Physiol Behav 2011; 104:1002-9. [PMID: 21741982 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Revised: 06/18/2011] [Accepted: 06/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Depression has been associated to inflammatory and oxidative events. Previous report has shown renal oxidative stress in patients with depression. In order to analyze if depressive status is related to renal oxidative and inflammatory events, Sprague Dawley rats were submitted to forced swimming test (FST) and the renal oxidative metabolism, monocyte-macrophage infiltration and Angiotensin II (Ang II) expression were determined. Rats were submitted to FST daily (30 min) for 15 days. Motor activity was analyzed before FST. Kidney sections were homogenized to measure nitric oxide (NO), malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH) and catalase activity by enzymatic and biochemical methods. Renal frozen sections were studied for superoxide anion (O2-), monocyte/macrophage infiltration and Ang II expression by histochemical and immunofluorescence methods. In addition, three groups of FST rats were treated with losartan, sertraline or water for 18 days with further renal O2-analysis. In the FST group, struggle time, motor activity, food intake and body weight gain were found decreased. Increased number of glomerular, interstitial and tubular O2-positive cells was observed in FST rats. High renal content of nitrite/nitrate (NO), MDA and decreased amount of GSH were found in FST rats. Values of renal ED-1 or Ang II positive cells in FST rats remained similar to controls; however, AT1 receptor blocking (losartan) and sertraline reduced both depressive-like behavior and renal O2-expression. These data suggests that depression-like behavior in rats is involved in kidney oxidative stress probably mediated by AT1 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Pedreañez
- Catedra de Inmunologia, Escuela de Bioanalisis, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Venezuela
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Sun XL, Liu Y, Dai T, Ding JH, Hu G. Uncoupling protein 2 knockout exacerbates depression-like behaviors in mice via enhancing inflammatory response. Neuroscience 2011; 192:507-14. [PMID: 21729739 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2011] [Revised: 05/19/2011] [Accepted: 05/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) has been recognized as an important protein to regulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The absence of UCP2 has the potential to promote ROS accumulation and thereby induces oxidative damages and inflammatory response. Increasing evidence strongly reveals that depression is accompanied by oxidative stress, so the present study was to investigate the impacts of UCP2 on the etiology of depression. Wild-type and UCP2 knockout mice were used to establish chronic mild stress (CMS)-induced anhedonia model of depression. The results showed that CMS led to more severe depressive responses in UCP2 knockout mice, characterized by exacerbated depression-like behaviors, increased corticosterone level and significant loss of weight. Moreover, CMS resulted in a higher mortality in UCP2 knockout mice. Our further study showed that UCP2 knockout enhanced CMS-induced activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) p65 and increased mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in hypothalamus. And the levels of TNF-α of serum and spleen in UCP2 knockout mice are remarkably enhanced by CMS, even under basal conditions. Therefore, our findings suggest that UCP2 knockout-induced inflammation may contribute to the development of depressive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- X-L Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration, Department of Pharmacology, Nanjing Medical University, 140 Hanzhong Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, PR China
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Kubera M, Obuchowicz E, Goehler L, Brzeszcz J, Maes M. In animal models, psychosocial stress-induced (neuro)inflammation, apoptosis and reduced neurogenesis are associated to the onset of depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:744-59. [PMID: 20828592 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 314] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 08/28/2010] [Accepted: 08/29/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the inflammatory and neurodegenerative (I&ND) hypothesis of depression was formulated (Maes et al., 2009), i.e. the neurodegeneration and reduced neurogenesis that characterize depression are caused by inflammation, cell-mediated immune activation and their long-term sequels. The aim of this paper is to review the body of evidence that external stressors may induce (neuro)inflammation, neurodegeneration and reduced neurogenesis; and that antidepressive treatments may impact on these pathways. The chronic mild stress (CMS) and learned helplessness (LH) models show that depression-like behaviors are accompanied by peripheral and central inflammation, neuronal cell damage, decreased neurogenesis and apoptosis in the hippocampus. External stress-induced depression-like behaviors are associated with a) increased interleukin-(IL)1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-6, nuclear factor κB, cyclooxygenase-2, expression of Toll-like receptors and lipid peroxidation; b) antineurogenic effects and reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels; and c) apoptosis with reduced levels of Bcl-2 and BAG1 (Bcl-2 associated athanogene 1), and increased levels of caspase-3. Stress-induced inflammation, e.g. increased IL-1β, but not reduced neurogenesis, is sufficient to cause depression. Antidepressants a) reduce peripheral and central inflammatory pathways by decreasing IL-1β, TNFα and IL-6 levels; b) stimulate neuronal differentiation, synaptic plasticity, axonal growth and regeneration through stimulatory effects on the expression of different neurotrophic factors, e.g. trkB, the receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor; and c) attenuate apoptotic pathways by activating Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl proteins, and suppressing caspase-3. It is concluded that external stressors may provoke depression-like behaviors through activation of inflammatory, oxidative, apoptotic and antineurogenic mechanisms. The clinical efficacity of antidepressants may be ascribed to their ability to reverse these different pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kubera
- Department of Experimental Endocrinology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland.
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Saavedra JM, Sánchez-Lemus E, Benicky J. Blockade of brain angiotensin II AT1 receptors ameliorates stress, anxiety, brain inflammation and ischemia: Therapeutic implications. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011; 36:1-18. [PMID: 21035950 PMCID: PMC2998923 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Revised: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 10/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Poor adaptation to stress, alterations in cerebrovascular function and excessive brain inflammation play critical roles in the pathophysiology of many psychiatric and neurological disorders such as major depression, schizophrenia, post traumatic stress disorder, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases and traumatic brain injury. Treatment for these highly prevalent and devastating conditions is at present very limited and many times inefficient, and the search for novel therapeutic options is of major importance. Recently, attention has been focused on the role of a brain regulatory peptide, Angiotensin II, and in the translational value of the blockade of its physiological AT(1) receptors. In addition to its well-known cardiovascular effects, Angiotensin II, through AT(1) receptor stimulation, is a pleiotropic brain modulatory factor involved in the control of the reaction to stress, in the regulation of cerebrovascular flow and the response to inflammation. Excessive brain AT(1) receptor activity is associated with exaggerated sympathetic and hormonal response to stress, vulnerability to cerebrovascular ischemia and brain inflammation, processes leading to neuronal injury. In animal models, inhibition of brain AT(1) receptor activity with systemically administered Angiotensin II receptor blockers is neuroprotective; it reduces exaggerated stress responses and anxiety, prevents stress-induced gastric ulcerations, decreases vulnerability to ischemia and stroke, reverses chronic cerebrovascular inflammation, and reduces acute inflammatory responses produced by bacterial endotoxin. These effects protect neurons from injury and contribute to increase the lifespan. Angiotensin II receptor blockers are compounds with a good margin of safety widely used in the treatment of hypertension and their anti-inflammatory and vascular protective effects contribute to reduce renal and cardiovascular failure. Inhibition of brain AT(1) receptors in humans is also neuroprotective, reducing the incidence of stroke, improving cognition and decreasing the progression of Alzheimer's disease. Blockade of AT(1) receptors offers a novel and safe therapeutic approach for the treatment of illnesses of increasing prevalence and socioeconomic impact, such as mood disorders and neurodegenerative diseases of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Saavedra
- Section on Pharmacology, Division of Intramural Research Programs, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, 10 Center Drive, Building 10, Room 2D-57, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Albrecht D. Physiological and pathophysiological functions of different angiotensins in the brain. Br J Pharmacol 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00648.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
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Viera N, Pedreanez A, Rincon J, Mosquera J. Streptococcal zymogen type B induces angiotensin II in mesangial cells and leukocytes. Pediatr Nephrol 2009; 24:1005-11. [PMID: 19184118 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-008-1105-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2008] [Revised: 12/06/2008] [Accepted: 12/10/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Previous reports have shown that angiotensin II and oxidative stress may be important features in acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) and that streptococcal erythrogenic toxin type B (ETB) and its precursor (ETBP) may have an important role in the pathogenesis of APSGN. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of ETBP on the production of angiotensin II and oxidative stress in rat mesangial cells and human mononuclear leukocytes. Mesangial cells and leukocytes were isolated from digested glomeruli and by histopaque gradient, respectively, while ETBP was isolated from nephritogenic streptococcus cultures using a cation exchange column. Angiotensin II was determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and by cytometrics. Superoxide anion, reduced glutathione, nitrites, lipid peroxidation and catalase activity were determined by cytochemical, biochemical and enzymatic assays. Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression was determined by cytometrics. An increased production of angiotensin II was observed in ETBP-treated mesangial cell and leukocyte cultures. The ETBP induced an elevated production of superoxide anions and nitrites in mesangial cells and superoxide anions in leukocytes, while this streptococcal protein decreased the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in leukocytes. The ETBP was capable of inducing an increased production of angiotensin II and increased oxidative stress, both of which may be important mediators of inflammatory events in the renal tissue and during APSGN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ninoska Viera
- Instituto de Investigaciones Odontologicas, Facultad de Odontología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela
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Inflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress pathways underpinning chronic fatigue, somatization and psychosomatic symptoms. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2009; 22:75-83. [PMID: 19127706 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0b013e32831a4728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The aim of this paper is to review recent findings on inflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress (IO&NS) pathways in chronic fatigue and somatization disorder. RECENT FINDINGS Activation of IO&NS pathways is the key phenomenon underpinning chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): intracellular inflammation, with an increased production of nuclear factor kappa beta (NFkappabeta), cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible NO synthase (iNOS); and damage caused by O&NS to membrane fatty acids and functional proteins. These IO&NS pathways are induced by a number of trigger factors, for example psychological stress, strenuous exercise, viral infections and an increased translocation of LPS from gram-bacteria (leaky gut). The 'psychosomatic' symptoms experienced by CFS patients are caused by intracellular inflammation (aches and pain, muscular tension, fatigue, irritability, sadness, and the subjective feeling of infection); damage caused by O&NS (aches and pain, muscular tension and fatigue); and gut-derived inflammation (complaints of irritable bowel). Inflammatory pathways (monocytic activation) are also detected in somatizing disorder. SUMMARY 'Functional' symptoms, as occurring in CFS and somatization, have a genuine organic cause, that is activation of peripheral and central IO&NS pathways and gut-derived inflammation. The development of new drugs, aimed at treating those disorders, should target these IO&NS pathways.
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Comparison of lifelong and late life exercise on oxidative stress in the cerebellum. Neurobiol Aging 2007; 30:903-9. [PMID: 17976863 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2007] [Revised: 07/25/2007] [Accepted: 09/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Aging was associated with increased oxidation of DNA, RNA, and lipids in the cerebellum of male rats. DNA and lipid oxidation was reduced by lifelong (94 weeks) voluntary exercise on a running wheel. A reduction in cerebellar lipid oxidation, but not RNA or DNA oxidation, was observed following 3 months of moderate exercise or dietary supplementation of vitamin E, initiated at 18 months of age. The level of lipid oxidation correlated with measures of forelimb grip strength. The results indicate that lifelong exercise attenuates multiple molecular markers of age-related oxidative damage in the cerebellum. In addition, modest exercise initiated late in life can have a beneficial effect on lipid oxidation and motor function.
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