Characterization of MAP1B heavy chain interaction with actin

Microtubule-binding protein MAP1B regulates interstitial axon branching of cortical neurons via the tubulin tyrosination cycle

Regulation of directed axon guidance and branching during development is essential for the generation of neuronal networks. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie interstitial (or collateral) axon branching in the mammalian brain remain unresolved. Here, we investigate interstitial axon branching in vivo using an approach for precise labeling of layer 2/3 callosal projection neurons (CPNs). This method allows for quantitative analysis of axonal morphology at high acuity and also manipulation of gene expression in well-defined temporal windows. We find that the GSK3β serine/threonine kinase promotes interstitial axon branching in layer 2/3 CPNs by releasing MAP1B-mediated inhibition of axon branching. Further, we find that the tubulin tyrosination cycle is a key downstream component of GSK3β/MAP1B signaling. These data suggest a cell-autonomous molecular regulation of cortical neuron axon morphology, in which GSK3β can release a MAP1B-mediated brake on interstitial axon branching upstream of the posttranslational tubulin code.

The role of intrinsic disorder in binding of plant microtubule-associated proteins to the cytoskeleton

Microtubules (MTs) represent one of the main components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton and support numerous critical cellular functions. MTs are in principle tube-like structures that can grow and shrink in a highly dynamic manner; a process largely controlled by microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). Plant MAPs are a phylogenetically diverse group of proteins that nonetheless share many common biophysical characteristics and often contain large stretches of intrinsic protein disorder. These intrinsically disordered regions are determinants of many MAP-MT interactions, in which structural flexibility enables low-affinity protein-protein interactions that enable a fine-tuned regulation of MT cytoskeleton dynamics. Notably, intrinsic disorder is one of the major obstacles in functional and structural studies of MAPs and represents the principal present-day challenge to decipher how MAPs interact with MTs. Here, we review plant MAPs from an intrinsic protein disorder perspective, by providing a complete and up-to-date summary of all currently known members, and address the current and future challenges in functional and structural characterization of MAPs.

Microtubule-associated protein 1B is implicated in stem cell commitment and nervous system regeneration in planarians

Microtubule-associated 1B (MAP1B) proteins are expressed at the nervous system level where they control cytoskeleton activity and regulate neurotransmitter release. Here, we report about the identification of a planarian MAP1B factor (DjMap1B) that is enriched in cephalic ganglia and longitudinal nerve cords but not in neoblasts, the plentiful population of adult stem cells present in planarians, thanks to which these animals can continuously cell turnover and regenerate any lost body parts. DjMap1B knockdown induces morphological anomalies in the nervous system and affects neoblast commitment. Our data put forward a correlation between a MAP1B factor and stem cells and suggest a function of the nervous system in non-cell autonomous control of planarian stem cells.

Peptidomic analysis of hippocampal tissue for explore leptin neuroprotective effect on the preterm ischemia-hypoxia brain damage model rats

The most common injury of preterm infants is periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) and to date there is still no safe and effective treatment. In our previous studies, leptin has been found to have neuroprotective effects on the preterm ischemia-hypoxia brain damage model rats in animal behavior. To gain insight into the neuroprotective mechanisms of leptin on preterm brain damage model rats, we constructed a comparative peptidomic profiling of hippocampal tissue between leptin-treated after model and preterm ischemia-hypoxia brain damage model rats using a stable isobaric labeling strategy involving tandem mass tag reagents, followed by nano liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. We identified and quantified 4164 peptides, 238 of which were differential expressed in hippocampal tissue in the two groups. A total of 150 peptides were up regulated and 88 peptides were down regulated. These peptides were imported into the Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) and identified putative roles in nervous system development, function and diseases. We concluded that the preterm ischemia-hypoxia brain damage model with leptin treatment induced peptides changes in hippocampus, and these peptides, especially for the peptides associated "microtubule-associated protein 1b (MAP1b), Elastin (Eln), Piccolo presynaptic cytomatrix protein (Pclo), Zinc finger homeobox 3(Zfhx3), Alpha-kinase 3(Alpk3) and Myosin XVA(Myo15a) ", could be candidate bio-active peptides and participate in neuroprotection of leptin. These may advance our current understanding of the mechanism of leptin's neuroprotective effect on preterm brain damage and may be involved in the etiology of preterm brain damage. Meanwhile, we found that repression of ILK signaling pathway plays a significant role in neuroprotection of leptin. A better understanding of the role of ILK signaling pathway in neuroprotective mechanisms will help scientists and researchers to develop selective, safe and efficacious drug for therapy against human nervous system disorders.

Functional Consequences of Keratan Sulfate Sulfation in Electrosensory Tissues and in Neuronal Regulation

Keratan sulfate (KS) is a functional electrosensory and neuro-instructive molecule. Recent studies have identified novel low sulfation KS in auditory and sensory tissues such as the tectorial membrane of the organ of Corti and the Ampullae of Lorenzini in elasmobranch fish. These are extremely sensitive proton gradient detection systems that send signals to neural interfaces to facilitate audition and electrolocation. High and low sulfation KS have differential functional roles in song learning in the immature male zebra song-finch with high charge density KS in song nuclei promoting brain development and cognitive learning. The conductive properties of KS are relevant to the excitable neural phenotype. High sulfation KS interacts with a large number of guidance and neuroregulatory proteins. The KS proteoglycan microtubule associated protein-1B (MAP1B) stabilizes actin and tubulin cytoskeletal development during neuritogenesis. A second 12 span transmembrane synaptic vesicle associated KS proteoglycan (SV2) provides a smart gel storage matrix for the storage of neurotransmitters. MAP1B and SV2 have prominent roles to play in neuroregulation. Aggrecan and phosphacan have roles in perineuronal net formation and in neuroregulation. A greater understanding of the biology of KS may be insightful as to how neural repair might be improved.

Keratan sulfate (KS)-proteoglycans and neuronal regulation in health and disease: the importance of KS-glycodynamics and interactive capability with neuroregulatory ligands

Compared to the other classes of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), that is, chondroitin/dermatan sulfate, heparin/heparan sulfate and hyaluronan, keratan sulfate (KS), have the least known of its interactive properties. In the human body, the cornea and the brain are the two most abundant tissue sources of KS. Embryonic KS is synthesized as a linear poly-N-acetyllactosamine chain of d-galactose-GlcNAc repeat disaccharides which become progressively sulfated with development, sulfation of GlcNAc is more predominant than galactose. KS contains multi-sulfated high-charge density, monosulfated and non-sulfated poly-N-acetyllactosamine regions and thus is a heterogeneous molecule in terms of chain length and charge distribution. A recent proteomics study on corneal KS demonstrated its interactivity with members of the Slit-Robbo and Ephrin-Ephrin receptor families and proteins which regulate Rho GTPase signaling and actin polymerization/depolymerization in neural development and differentiation. KS decorates a number of peripheral nervous system/CNS proteoglycan (PG) core proteins. The astrocyte KS-PG abakan defines functional margins of the brain and is up-regulated following trauma. The chondroitin sulfate/KS PG aggrecan forms perineuronal nets which are dynamic neuroprotective structures with anti-oxidant properties and roles in neural differentiation, development and synaptic plasticity. Brain phosphacan a chondroitin sulfate, KS, HNK-1 PG have roles in neural development and repair. The intracellular microtubule and synaptic vesicle KS-PGs MAP1B and SV2 have roles in metabolite transport, storage, and export of neurotransmitters and cytoskeletal assembly. MAP1B has binding sites for tubulin and actin through which it promotes cytoskeletal development in growth cones and is highly expressed during neurite extension. The interactive capability of KS with neuroregulatory ligands indicate varied roles for KS-PGs in development and regenerative neural processes.

Calpain-10 regulates actin dynamics by proteolysis of microtubule-associated protein 1B

Calpain-10 (CAPN10) is the calpain family protease identified as the first candidate susceptibility gene for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, the detailed molecular mechanism has not yet been elucidated. Here we report that CAPN10 processes microtubule associated protein 1 (MAP1) family proteins into heavy and light chains and regulates their binding activities to microtubules and actin filaments. Immunofluorescent analysis of Capn10^−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts shows that MAP1B, a member of the MAP1 family of proteins, is localized at actin filaments rather than at microtubules. Furthermore, fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching analysis shows that calpain-10 regulates actin dynamics via MAP1B cleavage. Moreover, in pancreatic islets from CAPN10 knockout mice, insulin secretion was significantly increased both at the high and low glucose levels. These findings indicate that deficiency of calpain-10 expression may affect insulin secretion by abnormal actin reorganization, coordination and dynamics through MAP1 family processing.

Actin filament-microtubule interactions in axon initiation and branching

Neurons begin life as spherical cells. A major hallmark of neuronal development is the formation of elongating processes from the cell body which subsequently differentiate into dendrites and the axon. The formation and later development of neuronal processes is achieved through the concerted organization of actin filaments and microtubules. Here, we review the literature regarding recent advances in the understanding of cytoskeletal interactions in neurons focusing on the initiation of processes from neuronal cell bodies and the collateral branching of axons. The complex crosstalk between cytoskeletal elements is mediated by a cohort of proteins that either bind both cytoskeletal systems or allow one to regulate the other. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of microtubule plus-tip proteins in the regulation of the dynamics and organization of actin filaments, while also providing a mechanism for the subcellular capture and guidance of microtubule tips by actin filaments. Although the understanding of cytoskeletal crosstalk and interactions in neuronal morphogenesis has advanced significantly in recent years the appreciation of the neuron as an integrated cytoskeletal system remains a frontier.

Organization and dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton during dendritic spine morphological remodeling

In the central nervous system, most excitatory post-synapses are small subcellular structures called dendritic spines. Their structure and morphological remodeling are tightly coupled to changes in synaptic transmission. The F-actin cytoskeleton is the main driving force of dendritic spine remodeling and sustains synaptic plasticity. It is therefore essential to understand how changes in synaptic transmission can regulate the organization and dynamics of actin binding proteins (ABPs). In this review, we will provide a detailed description of the organization and dynamics of F-actin and ABPs in dendritic spines and will discuss the current models explaining how the actin cytoskeleton sustains both structural and functional synaptic plasticity.

The cytoskeleton as a novel therapeutic target for old neurodegenerative disorders

Cytoskeleton defects, including alterations in microtubule stability, in axonal transport as well as in actin dynamics, have been characterized in several unrelated neurodegenerative conditions. These observations suggest that defects of cytoskeleton organization may be a common feature contributing to neurodegeneration. In line with this hypothesis, drugs targeting the cytoskeleton are currently being tested in animal models and in human clinical trials, showing promising effects. Drugs that modulate microtubule stability, inhibitors of posttranslational modifications of cytoskeletal components, specifically compounds affecting the levels of tubulin acetylation, and compounds targeting signaling molecules which regulate cytoskeleton dynamics, constitute the mostly addressed therapeutic interventions aiming at preventing cytoskeleton damage in neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we will discuss in a critical perspective the current knowledge on cytoskeleton damage pathways as well as therapeutic strategies designed to revert cytoskeleton-related defects mainly focusing on the following neurodegenerative disorders: Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington's Disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease.

Microtubule-associated protein 1b is required for shaping the neural tube

BACKGROUND

Shaping of the neural tube, the precursor of the brain and spinal cord, involves narrowing and elongation of the neural tissue, concomitantly with other morphogenetic changes that contribue to this process. In zebrafish, medial displacement of neural cells (neural convergence or NC), which drives the infolding and narrowing of the neural ectoderm, is mediated by polarized migration and cell elongation towards the dorsal midline. Failure to undergo proper NC results in severe neural tube defects, yet the molecular underpinnings of this process remain poorly understood.

RESULTS

We investigated here the role of the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton in mediating NC in zebrafish embryos using the MT destabilizing and hyperstabilizing drugs nocodazole and paclitaxel respectively. We found that MTs undergo major changes in organization and stability during neurulation and are required for the timely completion of NC by promoting cell elongation and polarity. We next examined the role of Microtubule-associated protein 1B (Map1b), previously shown to promote MT dynamicity in axons. map1b is expressed earlier than previously reported, in the developing neural tube and underlying mesoderm. Loss of Map1b function using morpholinos (MOs) or δMap1b (encoding a truncated Map1b protein product) resulted in delayed NC and duplication of the neural tube, a defect associated with impaired NC. We observed a loss of stable MTs in these embryos that is likely to contribute to the NC defect. Lastly, we found that Map1b mediates cell elongation in a cell autonomous manner and polarized protrusive activity, two cell behaviors that underlie NC and are MT-dependent.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these data highlight the importance of MTs in the early morphogenetic movements that shape the neural tube and reveal a novel role for the MT regulator Map1b in mediating cell elongation and polarized cell movement in neural progenitor cells.

CRMP‑5 interacts with actin to regulate neurite outgrowth

CRMP family proteins (CRMPs) are abundantly expressed in the developing nervous system mediating growth cone guidance, neuronal polarity and axon elongation. CRMP-5 has been indicated to serve a critical role in neurite outgrowth. However, the detailed mechanisms of how CRMP-5 regulates neurite outgrowth remain unclear. In the current study, co-immunoprecipitation was used to identify the fact that CRMP-5 interacted with the actin and tubulin cytoskeleton networks in the growth cones of developing hippocampal neurons. CRMP-5 exhibited increased affinity towards actin when compared with microtubules. Immunocytochemistry was used to identify the fact that CRMP-5 colocalized with actin predominantly in the C-domain and T-zone in growth cones. In addition, genetic inhibition of CRMP-5 by siRNA suppressed the expression of actin, growth cone development and neurite outgrowth. Overexpression of CRMP-5 promoted the interaction with actin, growth cone development and hippocampal neurite outgrowth. Taken together, these data suggest that CRMP-5 is able to interact with the actin cytoskeleton network in the growth cone and affect growth cone development and neurite outgrowth via this interaction in developing hippocampal neurons.

Microtubule-associated proteins as direct crosslinkers of actin filaments and microtubules

The cytoskeletal polymers--actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments--are interlinked by coordinated protein interactions to form a complex three-dimensional cytoskeletal network. Association of actin filaments with microtubules is important for various cellular processes such as cell division, migration, vesicle and organelle transport, and axonal growth. Several proteins including signaling molecules, motor proteins, and proteins directly or indirectly associated with microtubules and actin are involved in bridging the cytoskeletal components. Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) belonging to the MAP1, 2, 4 family and Tau proteins have been identified as key players that directly crosslink the two cytoskeletons. This review summarizes the current understanding of the interactions of these MAPs with actin filaments and their role in forming the actin-microtubule network and further discusses how the in vitro reconstitution assays can be used to study the dynamics of coordinated networks. Understanding the mechanisms by which actin and microtubules interact is key to decipher cancer, wound healing, and neuronal regeneration.

CRMP4 and CRMP2 Interact to Coordinate Cytoskeleton Dynamics, Regulating Growth Cone Development and Axon Elongation

Cytoskeleton dynamics are critical phenomena that underpin many fundamental cellular processes. Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) are highly expressed in the developing nervous system, mediating growth cone guidance, neuronal polarity, and axonal elongation. However, whether and how CRMPs associate with microtubules and actin coordinated cytoskeletal dynamics remain unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that CRMP2 and CRMP4 interacted with tubulin and actin in vitro and colocalized with the cytoskeleton in the transition-zone in developing growth cones. CRMP2 and CRMP4 also interacted with one another coordinately to promote growth cone development and axonal elongation. Genetic silencing of CRMP2 enhanced, whereas overexpression of CRMP2 suppressed, the inhibitory effects of CRMP4 knockdown on axonal development. In addition, knockdown of CRMP2 or overexpression of truncated CRMP2 reversed the promoting effect of CRMP4. With the overexpression of truncated CRMP2 or CRMP4 lacking the cytoskeleton interaction domain, the promoting effect of CRMP was suppressed. These data suggest a model in which CRMP2 and CRMP4 form complexes to bridge microtubules and actin and thus work cooperatively to regulate growth cone development and axonal elongation.

The role of microtubule-associated protein 1B in axonal growth and neuronal migration in the central nervous system

In this review, we discuss the role of microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) and its phosphorylation in axonal development and regeneration in the central nervous system. MAP1B exhibits similar functions during axonal development and regeneration. MAP1B and phosphorylated MAP1B in neurons and axons maintain a dynamic balance between cytoskeletal components, and regulate the stability and interaction of microtubules and actin to promote axonal growth, neural connectivity and regeneration in the central nervous system.

Aβ Influences Cytoskeletal Signaling Cascades with Consequences to Alzheimer's Disease

Abnormal signal transduction events can impact upon the cytoskeleton, affecting the actin and microtubule networks with direct relevance to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cytoskeletal anomalies, in turn, promote atypical neuronal responses, with consequences for cellular organization and function. Neuronal cytoskeletal modifications in AD include neurofibrillary tangles, which result from aggregates of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. The latter is a microtubule (MT)-binding protein, whose abnormal phosphorylation leads to MT instability and consequently provokes irregularities in the neuronal trafficking pathways. Early stages of AD are also characterized by synaptic dysfunction and loss of dendritic spines, which correlate with cognitive deficit and impaired brain function. Actin dynamics has a prominent role in maintaining spine plasticity and integrity, thus providing the basis for memory and learning processes. Hence, factors that disrupt both actin and MT network dynamics will compromise neuronal function and survival. The peptide Aβ is the major component of senile plaques and has been described as a pivotal mediator of neuronal dystrophy and synaptic loss in AD. Here, we review Aβ-mediated effects on both MT and actin networks and focus on the relevance of the elicited cytoskeletal signaling events targeted in AD pathology.

The MAP1B case: an old MAP that is new again

The functions of microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) have historically been linked to the development of the nervous system, based on its very early expression in neurons and glial cells. Moreover, mice in which MAP1B is genetically inactivated have been used extensively to show its role in axonal elongation, neuronal migration, and axonal guidance. In the last few years, it has become apparent that MAP1B has other cellular and molecular functions that are not related to its microtubule-stabilizing properties in the embryonic and adult brain. In this review, we present a systematic review of the canonical and novel functions of MAP1B and propose that, in addition to regulating the polymerization of microtubule and actin microfilaments, MAP1B also acts as a signaling protein involved in normal physiology and pathological conditions in the nervous system.

RNAi mediated Tiam1 gene knockdown inhibits invasion of retinoblastoma

T lymphoma invasion and metastasis protein (Tiam1) is up-regulated in variety of cancers and its expression level is related to metastatic potential of the type of cancer. Earlier, Tiam1 was shown to be overexpressed in retinoblastoma (RB) and we hypothesized that it was involved in invasiveness of RB. This was tested by silencing Tiam1 in RB cell lines (Y79 and Weri-Rb1) using siRNA pool, targeting different regions of Tiam1 mRNA. The cDNA microarray of Tiam1 silenced cells showed gene regulations altered by Tiam1 were predominantly on the actin cytoskeleton interacting proteins, apoptotic initiators and tumorogenic potential targets. The silenced phenotype resulted in decreased growth and increased apoptosis with non-invasive characteristics. Transfection of full length and N-terminal truncated construct (C1199) clearly revealed membrane localization of Tiam1 and not in the case of C580 construct. F-actin staining showed the interaction of Tiam1 with actin in the membrane edges that leads to ruffling, and also imparts varying invasive potential to the cell. The results obtained from our study show for the first time that Tiam1 modulates the cell invasion, mediated by actin cytoskeleton remodeling in RB.

The light chain 1 subunit of the microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) is responsible for Tiam1 binding and Rac1 activation in neuronal cells

Microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) is a neuronal protein involved in the stabilization of microtubules both in the axon and somatodendritic compartments. Acute, genetic inactivation of MAP1B leads to delayed axonal outgrowth, most likely due to changes in the post-translational modification of tubulin subunits, which enhances microtubule polymerization. Furthermore, MAP1B deficiency is accompanied by abnormal actin microfilament polymerization and dramatic changes in the activity of small GTPases controlling the actin cytoskeleton. In this work, we showed that MAP1B interacts with a guanine exchange factor, termed Tiam1, which specifically activates Rac1. These proteins co-segregated in neurons, and interact in both heterologous expression systems and primary neurons. We dissected the molecular domains involved in the MAP1B-Tiam1 interaction, and demonstrated that pleckstrin homology (PH) domains in Tiam1 are responsible for MAP1B binding. Interestingly, only the light chain 1 (LC1) of MAP1B was able to interact with Tiam1. Moreover, it was able to increase the activity of the small GTPase, Rac1. These results suggest that the interaction between Tiam1 and MAP1B, is produced by the binding of LC1 with PH domains in Tiam1. The formation of such a complex impacts on the activation levels of Rac1 confirming a novel function of MAP1B related with the control of small GTPases. These results also support the idea of cross-talk between cytoskeleton compartments inside neuronal cells.

Functional diversity of actin cytoskeleton in neurons and its regulation by tropomyosin

Neurons comprise functionally, molecularly, and spatially distinct subcellular compartments which include the soma, dendrites, axon, branches, dendritic spines, and growth cones. In this chapter, we detail the remarkable ability of the neuronal cytoskeleton to exquisitely regulate all these cytoplasmic distinct partitions, with particular emphasis on the microfilament system and its plethora of associated proteins. Importance will be given to the family of actin-associated proteins, tropomyosin, in defining distinct actin filament populations. The ability of tropomyosin isoforms to regulate the access of actin-binding proteins to the filaments is believed to define the structural diversity and dynamics of actin filaments and ultimately be responsible for the functional outcome of these filaments.

Microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) is required for dendritic spine development and synaptic maturation

Microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) is prominently expressed during early stages of neuronal development, and it has been implicated in axonal growth and guidance. MAP1B expression is also found in the adult brain in areas of significant synaptic plasticity. Here, we demonstrate that MAP1B is present in dendritic spines, and we describe a decrease in the density of mature dendritic spines in neurons of MAP1B-deficient mice that was accompanied by an increase in the number of immature filopodia-like protrusions. Although these neurons exhibited normal passive membrane properties and action potential firing, AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic currents were significantly diminished. Moreover, we observed a significant decrease in Rac1 activity and an increase in RhoA activity in the post-synaptic densities of adult MAP1B(+/-) mice when compared with wild type controls. MAP1B(+/-) fractions also exhibited a decrease in phosphorylated cofilin. Taken together, these results indicate a new and important role for MAP1B in the formation and maturation of dendritic spines, possibly through the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. This activity of MAP1B could contribute to the regulation of synaptic activity and plasticity in the adult brain.

MAP1B regulates axonal development by modulating Rho-GTPase Rac1 activity

This article shows a novel function for the MAP1B protein, related to the control of actin dynamics through interaction with Tiam1.

Cultured neurons obtained from MAP1B-deficient mice have a delay in axon outgrowth and a reduced rate of axonal elongation compared with neurons from wild-type mice. Here we show that MAP1B deficiency results in a significant decrease in Rac1 and cdc42 activity and a significant increase in Rho activity. We found that MAP1B interacted with Tiam1, a guanosine nucleotide exchange factor for Rac1. The decrease in Rac1/cdc42 activity was paralleled by decreases in the phosphorylation of the downstream effectors of these proteins, such as LIMK-1 and cofilin. The expression of a constitutively active form of Rac1, cdc42, or Tiam1 rescued the axon growth defect of MAP1B-deficient neurons. Taken together, these observations define a new and crucial function of MAP1B that we show to be required for efficient cross-talk between microtubules and the actin cytoskeleton during neuronal polarization.

Phosphorylation of neurofilament subunit NF-M is regulated by activation of NMDA receptors and modulates cytoskeleton stability and neuronal shape

The cytoskeleton is essential for the structural organization of neurons and is influenced during development by excitatory stimuli such as activation of glutamate receptors. In particular, NMDA receptors are known to modulate the function of several cytoskeletal proteins and to influence cell morphology, but the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we characterized the neurofilament subunit NF-M in cultures of developing mouse cortical neurons chronically exposed to NMDA receptor antagonists. Western blots analysis showed that treatment of cortical neurons with MK801 or AP5 shifted the size of NF-M towards higher molecular weights. Dephosphorylation assay revealed that this increased size of NF-M observed after chronic exposure to NMDA receptor antagonists was due to phosphorylation. Neurons treated with cyclosporin, an inhibitor of the Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase calcineurin, also showed increased levels of phosphorylated NF-M. Moreover, analysis of neurofilament stability revealed that the phosphorylation of NF-M, resulting from NMDA receptor inhibition, enhanced the solubility of NF-M. Finally, cortical neurons cultured in the presence of the NMDA receptor antagonists MK801 and AP5 grew longer neurites. Together, these data indicate that a blockade of NMDA receptors during development of cortical neurons increases the phosphorylation state and the solubility of NF-M, thereby favoring neurite outgrowth. This also underlines that dynamics of the neurofilament and microtubule cytoskeleton is fundamental for growth processes.

MAP1 structural organization in Drosophila: in vivo analysis of FUTSCH reveals heavy- and light-chain subunits generated by proteolytic processing at a conserved cleavage site

The MAP1 (microtubule-associated protein 1) family is a class of microtubule-binding proteins represented by mammalian MAP1A, MAP1B and the recently identified MAP1S. MAP1A and MAP1B are expressed in the nervous system and thought to mediate interactions of the microtubule-based cytoskeleton in neural development and function. The characteristic structural organization of mammalian MAP1s, which are composed of heavy- and light-chain subunits, requires proteolytic cleavage of a precursor polypeptide encoded by the corresponding map1 gene. MAP1 function in Drosophila appears to be fulfilled by a single gene, futsch. Although the futsch gene product is known to share several important functional properties with mammalian MAP1s, whether it adopts the same basic structural organization has not been addressed. Here, we report the identification of a Drosophila MAP1 light chain, LCf, produced by proteolytic cleavage of a futsch-encoded precursor polypeptide, and confirm co-localization and co-assembly of the heavy chain and LCf cleavage products. Furthermore, the in vivo properties of MAP1 proteins were further defined through precise MS identification of a conserved proteolytic cleavage site within the futsch-encoded MAP1 precursor and demonstration of light-chain diversity represented by multiple LCf variants. Taken together, these findings establish conservation of proteolytic processing and structural organization among mammalian and Drosophila MAP1 proteins and are expected to enhance genetic analysis of conserved MAP1 functions within the neuronal cytoskeleton.

Are histones, tubulin, and actin derived from a common ancestral protein?

Histones and the cytoskeletal components tubulin and actin all act as thermal ratchets, using the energy present in Brownian motion to do work. All three also bind to nucleotides. Here we suggest that histones, tubulin, and actin derive from a common ancestral protein. There is some sequence similarity between histone 2A and the bacterial tubulin homologue FtsZ. Histones and actin also share some sequence similarity in the nucleotides and at phosphate-binding sites. Thus, actin and tubulin may also be related, although this is not obvious from sequence analysis. Indeed, actin and tubulin are closely functionally related and cooperate in many cellular processes. Interestingly, recent advances in nanotechnology suggest that thermal ratchets may be able to impart lifelike properties; thus, the evolution of the ancestral histone, tubulin, and actin thermal ratchet may have been crucial in the development of complexity in living organisms.

Characterization of the role of microtubule-associated protein 1B in metabotropic glutamate receptor-mediated endocytosis of AMPA receptors in hippocampus

The mGluR-dependent endocytosis of AMPA receptors (AMPARs) in the CA1 region is protein synthesis dependent. However, why this form of trafficking, and not that mediated by NMDA receptor activation, is dependent on protein translation is unclear. Here we have studied the contribution of the cytoskeletal microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) to the pathway-specific internalization of AMPARs. Treatments of cultured neurons with 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycol (DHPG) or NMDA, both of which drive AMPAR endocytosis, caused a translation-dependent increase in the dendritic levels of MAP1B protein. Although interfering with protein synthesis using short interfering RNA (siRNA) to eEF2 kinase (eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase) blocked the dendritic MAP1B increase by both pathways, it selectively blocked the DHPG- and not the NMDA-induced AMPAR endocytosis. In support of MAP1B synthesis contributing to metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-mediated AMPAR endocytosis, siRNA against MAP1B in CA1 cultured neurons specifically blocked the DHPG-induced AMPAR internalization. Previous studies suggest a direct interaction between MAP1B and the AMPAR-binding protein GRIP1. Biochemical studies establish that MAP1B associates with GRIP1 and forms a complex with GluR2 in vivo in rat hippocampus. Furthermore, the interaction between MAP1B and GRIP1 increased significantly in acute slices after treatment with DHPG and not NMDA. Together, these findings suggest that MAP1B plays a selective role in the DHPG-induced endocytosis of AMPARs, perhaps through its interaction with GRIP1.

Amyloid-beta peptide binds to microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B)

Extracellular and intraneuronal formation of amyloid-beta aggregates have been demonstrated to be involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. However, the precise mechanism of amyloid-beta neurotoxicity is not completely understood. Previous studies suggest that binding of amyloid-beta to a number of targets have deleterious effects on cellular functions. In the present study we have shown for the first time that amyloid-beta 1-42 bound to a peptide comprising the microtubule binding domain of the heavy chain of microtubule-associated protein 1B by the screening of a human brain cDNA library expressed on M13 phage. This interaction may explain, in part, the loss of neuronal cytoskeletal integrity, impairment of microtubule-dependent transport and synaptic dysfunction observed previously in Alzheimer's disease.

Microtubule-associated protein 1B binds glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

Microtubule-associated protein 1B, MAP1B, is a major cytoskeletal protein during brain development and one of the largest brain MAPs associated with microtubules and microfilaments. Here, we identified several proteins that bind to MAP1B via immunoprecipitation with a MAP1B-specific antibody, by one and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and subsequent mass spectrometry identification of precipitated proteins. In addition to tubulin and actin, a variety of proteins were identified. Among these proteins were glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), heat shock protein 8, dihydropyrimidinase related proteins 2 and 3, protein-L-isoaspartate O-methyltransferase, beta-spectrin, and clathrin protein MKIAA0034, linking either directly or indirectly to MAP1B. In particular, GAPDH, a key glycolytic enzyme, was bound in large quantity to the heavy chain of MAP1B in adult brain tissue. In vitro binding studies confirmed a direct binding of GAPDH to MAP1B. In PC12 cells, GAPDH was found in cytoplasm and nuclei and partially co-localized with MAP1B. It disappeared from the cytoplasm under oxidative stress or after a disruption of cytoskeletal elements after colcemid or cytochalasin exposure. GAPDH may be essential in the local energy provision of cytoskeletal structures and MAP1B may help to keep this key enzyme close to the cytoskeleton.

Microtubule-associated protein 1B, a growth-associated and phosphorylated scaffold protein

Microtubule-associated protein 1B, MAP1B, is one of the major growth associated and cytoskeletal proteins in neuronal and glial cells. It is present as a full length protein or may be fragmented into a heavy chain and a light chain. It is essential to stabilize microtubules during the elongation of dendrites and neurites and is involved in the dynamics of morphological structures such as microtubules, microfilaments and growth cones. MAP1B function is modulated by phosphorylation and influences microtubule stability, microfilaments and growth cone motility. Considering its large size, several interactions with a variety of other proteins have been reported and there is increasing evidence that MAP1B plays a crucial role in the stability of the cytoskeleton and may have other cellular functions. Here we review molecular and functional aspects of this protein, evoke its role as a scaffold protein and have a look at several pathologies where the protein may be involved.