1
|
Teil M, Dovero S, Bourdenx M, Arotcarena ML, Darricau M, Porras G, Thiolat ML, Trigo-Damas I, Perier C, Estrada C, Garcia-Carrillo N, Herrero MT, Vila M, Obeso JA, Bezard E, Dehay B. Cortical Lewy body injections induce long-distance pathogenic alterations in the non-human primate brain. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2023; 9:135. [PMID: 37726343 PMCID: PMC10509171 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-023-00579-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) is the cornerstone of neurodegenerative diseases termed synucleinopathies, which include Parkinson's Disease (PD), Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB), and Multiple System Atrophy (MSA). These synucleinopathies are characterized by the deposit of aggregated α-syn in intracellular inclusions observable in neurons and glial cells. In PD and DLB, these aggregates, predominantly located in neurons, are called Lewy Bodies (LBs). These LBs are one of the pathological hallmarks of PD and DLB, alongside dopaminergic neuron loss in the substantia nigra. Previous studies have demonstrated the ability of PD patient-derived LB fractions to induce nigrostriatal neurodegeneration and α-syn pathology when injected into the striatum or the enteric nervous system of non-human primates. Here, we report the pathological consequences of injecting these LB fractions into the cortex of non-human primates. To this end, we inoculated mesencephalic PD patient-derived LB fractions into the prefrontal cortex of baboon monkeys terminated one year later. Extensive analyses were performed to evaluate pathological markers known to be affected in LB pathologies. We first assessed the hypothesized presence of phosphorylated α-syn at S129 (pSyn) in the prefrontal cortices. Second, we quantified the neuronal, microglial, and astrocytic cell survival in the same cortices. Third, we characterized these cortical LB injections' putative impact on the integrity of the nigrostriatal system. Overall, we observed pSyn accumulation around the injection site in the dorsal prefrontal cortex, in connected cortical regions, and further towards the striatum, suggesting α-syn pathological propagation. The pathology was also accompanied by neuronal loss in these prefrontal cortical regions and the caudate nucleus, without, however, loss of nigral dopamine neurons. In conclusion, this pilot study provides novel data demonstrating the toxicity of patient-derived extracts, their potential to propagate from the cortex to the striatum in non-human primates, and a possible primate model of DLB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margaux Teil
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, IMN, UMR 5293, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sandra Dovero
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, IMN, UMR 5293, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Mathieu Bourdenx
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, IMN, UMR 5293, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | | | | | - Gregory Porras
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, IMN, UMR 5293, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Inés Trigo-Damas
- HM CINAC, HM Puerta del Sur, Fundación HM Hospitales and CIBERNED and CEU-San Pablo University Madrid, E-28938, Mostoles, Spain
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Celine Perier
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Estrada
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience Unit, School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB), University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, 30100, Murcia, Spain
- Institute of Research on Aging (IUIE), School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Nuria Garcia-Carrillo
- Centro Experimental en Investigaciones Biomédica (CEIB), Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - María Trinidad Herrero
- Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience Unit, School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Institute of Murcia (IMIB), University of Murcia, Campus Mare Nostrum, 30100, Murcia, Spain
- Institute of Research on Aging (IUIE), School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Miquel Vila
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815, USA
| | - José A Obeso
- HM CINAC, HM Puerta del Sur, Fundación HM Hospitales and CIBERNED and CEU-San Pablo University Madrid, E-28938, Mostoles, Spain
- Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815, USA
- CEU, San Pablo University Madrid, E-28938 Mostoles, Spain 2 HM CINAC, HM Puerta del Sur and CIBERNED and CEU-San Pablo University Madrid, E-, 28938, Mostoles, Spain
| | - Erwan Bezard
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, IMN, UMR 5293, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Benjamin Dehay
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, IMN, UMR 5293, F-33000, Bordeaux, France.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Fanning S, Cirka H, Thies JL, Jeong J, Niemi SM, Yoon J, Ho GPH, Pacheco JA, Dettmer U, Liu L, Clish CB, Hodgetts KJ, Hutchinson JN, Muratore CR, Caldwell GA, Caldwell KA, Selkoe D. Lipase regulation of cellular fatty acid homeostasis as a Parkinson's disease therapeutic strategy. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2022; 8:74. [PMID: 35680956 PMCID: PMC9184586 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-022-00335-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Synucleinopathy (Parkinson's disease (PD); Lewy body dementia) disease-modifying treatments represent a huge unmet medical need. Although the PD-causing protein α-synuclein (αS) interacts with lipids and fatty acids (FA) physiologically and pathologically, targeting FA homeostasis for therapeutics is in its infancy. We identified the PD-relevant target stearoyl-coA desaturase: inhibiting monounsaturated FA synthesis reversed PD phenotypes. However, lipid degradation also generates FA pools. Here, we identify the rate-limiting lipase enzyme, LIPE, as a candidate target. Decreasing LIPE in human neural cells reduced αS inclusions. Patient αS triplication vs. corrected neurons had increased pSer129 and insoluble αS and decreased αS tetramer:monomer ratios. LIPE inhibition rescued all these and the abnormal unfolded protein response. LIPE inhibitors decreased pSer129 and restored tetramer:monomer equilibrium in αS E46K-expressing human neurons. LIPE reduction in vivo alleviated αS-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration in Caenorhabditis elegans. Co-regulating FA synthesis and degradation proved additive in rescuing PD phenotypes, signifying co-targeting as a therapeutic strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saranna Fanning
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Haley Cirka
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jennifer L Thies
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA
| | - Jooyoung Jeong
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Sarah M Niemi
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Joon Yoon
- Department of Biostatistics, The Harvard Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Gary P H Ho
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | | | - Ulf Dettmer
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Lei Liu
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Clary B Clish
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Kevin J Hodgetts
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - John N Hutchinson
- Department of Biostatistics, The Harvard Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Christina R Muratore
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Guy A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA
| | - Kim A Caldwell
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA
| | - Dennis Selkoe
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hatstat AK, Quan B, Bailey MA, Fitzgerald MC, Reinhart MC, McCafferty DG. Chemoproteomic-enabled characterization of small GTPase Rab1a as a target of an N-arylbenzimidazole ligand's rescue of Parkinson's-associated cell toxicity. RSC Chem Biol 2022; 3:96-111. [PMID: 35128413 PMCID: PMC8729260 DOI: 10.1039/d1cb00103e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of phenotypic models of Parkinson's disease (PD) has enabled screening and identification of phenotypically active small molecules that restore complex biological pathways affected by PD toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Baiyi Quan
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hatstat AK, Pupi MD, Reinhart MC, McCafferty DG. Small Molecule Improvement of Trafficking Defects in Models of Neurodegeneration. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:3972-3984. [PMID: 34652126 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Disrupted cellular trafficking and transport processes are hallmarks of many neurodegenerative disorders (NDs). Recently, efforts have been made toward developing and implementing experimental platforms to identify small molecules that may help restore normative trafficking functions. There have been a number of successes in targeting endomembrane trafficking with the identification of compounds that restore cell viability through rescue of protein transport and trafficking. Here, we describe some of the experimental platforms implemented for small molecule screening efforts for rescue of trafficking defects in neurodegeneration. A survey of phenotypically active small molecules identified to date is provided, including a summary of medicinal chemistry efforts and insights into putative targets and mechanisms of action. In particular, emphasis is put on ligands that demonstrate activity in more than one model of neurodegeneration as retention of phenotypic activity across ND models suggests conservation of biological targets across NDs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. Katherine Hatstat
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Michael D. Pupi
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Michaela C. Reinhart
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Dewey G. McCafferty
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a leading cause of neurodegeneration that is defined by the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons and the accumulation of protein aggregates called Lewy bodies (LBs). The unequivocal identification of Mendelian inherited mutations in 13 genes in PD has provided transforming insights into the pathogenesis of this disease. The mechanistic analysis of several PD genes, including α-synuclein (α-syn), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), and Parkin, has revealed central roles for protein aggregation, mitochondrial damage, and defects in endolysosomal trafficking in PD neurodegeneration. In this review, we outline recent advances in our understanding of these gene pathways with a focus on the emergent role of Rab (Ras analog in brain) GTPases and vesicular trafficking as a common mechanism that underpins how mutations in PD genes lead to neuronal loss. These advances have led to previously distinct genes such as vacuolar protein-sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS35) and LRRK2 being implicated in a common signaling pathway. A greater understanding of these common nodes of vesicular trafficking will be crucial for linking other PD genes and improving patient stratification in clinical trials underway against α-syn and LRRK2 targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Kishor Singh
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, Sir James Black Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom;
| | - Miratul M K Muqit
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, Sir James Black Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cell Responses to Extracellular α-Synuclein. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24020305. [PMID: 30650656 PMCID: PMC6359176 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24020305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Synucleins are small naturally unfolded proteins involved in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The family contains three members: α-, β-, and -synuclein. α-Synuclein is the most thoroughly investigated because of its close association with Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple system atrophy. Until recently, the synuclein's research was mainly focused on their intracellular forms. However, new studies highlighted the important role of extracellular synucleins. Extracellular forms of synucleins propagate between various types of cells, bind to cell surface receptors and transmit signals, regulating numerous intracellular processes. Here we give an update of the latest results about the mechanisms of action of extracellular synucleins, their binding to cell surface receptors, effect on biochemical pathways and the role in neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation.
Collapse
|
7
|
Ruggeri FS, Habchi J, Cerreta A, Dietler G. AFM-Based Single Molecule Techniques: Unraveling the Amyloid Pathogenic Species. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 22:3950-70. [PMID: 27189600 PMCID: PMC5080865 DOI: 10.2174/1381612822666160518141911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Background A wide class of human diseases and neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, is due to the failure of a specific peptide or protein to keep its native functional conformational state and to undergo a conformational change into a misfolded state, triggering the formation of fibrillar cross-β sheet amyloid aggregates. During the fibrillization, several coexisting species are formed, giving rise to a highly heterogeneous mixture. Despite its fundamental role in biological function and malfunction, the mechanism of protein self-assembly and the fundamental origins of the connection between aggregation, cellular toxicity and the biochemistry of neurodegeneration remains challenging to elucidate in molecular detail. In particular, the nature of the specific state of proteins that is most prone to cause cytotoxicity is not established. Methods: In the present review, we present the latest advances obtained by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) based techniques to unravel the biophysical properties of amyloid aggregates at the nanoscale. Unraveling amyloid single species biophysical properties still represents a formidable experimental challenge, mainly because of their nanoscale dimensions and heterogeneous nature. Bulk techniques, such as circular dichroism or infrared spectroscopy, are not able to characterize the heterogeneity and inner properties of amyloid aggregates at the single species level, preventing a profound investigation of the correlation between the biophysical properties and toxicity of the individual species. Conclusion: The information delivered by AFM based techniques could be central to study the aggregation pathway of proteins and to design molecules that could interfere with amyloid aggregation delaying the onset of misfolding diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Simone Ruggeri
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, CB2 1EW, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Vanhauwaert R, Kuenen S, Masius R, Bademosi A, Manetsberger J, Schoovaerts N, Bounti L, Gontcharenko S, Swerts J, Vilain S, Picillo M, Barone P, Munshi ST, de Vrij FM, Kushner SA, Gounko NV, Mandemakers W, Bonifati V, Meunier FA, Soukup SF, Verstreken P. The SAC1 domain in synaptojanin is required for autophagosome maturation at presynaptic terminals. EMBO J 2017; 36:1392-1411. [PMID: 28331029 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201695773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Presynaptic terminals are metabolically active and accrue damage through continuous vesicle cycling. How synapses locally regulate protein homeostasis is poorly understood. We show that the presynaptic lipid phosphatase synaptojanin is required for macroautophagy, and this role is inhibited by the Parkinson's disease mutation R258Q. Synaptojanin drives synaptic endocytosis by dephosphorylating PI(4,5)P2, but this function appears normal in SynaptojaninRQ knock-in flies. Instead, R258Q affects the synaptojanin SAC1 domain that dephosphorylates PI(3)P and PI(3,5)P2, two lipids found in autophagosomal membranes. Using advanced imaging, we show that SynaptojaninRQ mutants accumulate the PI(3)P/PI(3,5)P2-binding protein Atg18a on nascent synaptic autophagosomes, blocking autophagosome maturation at fly synapses and in neurites of human patient induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons. Additionally, we observe neurodegeneration, including dopaminergic neuron loss, in SynaptojaninRQ flies. Thus, synaptojanin is essential for macroautophagy within presynaptic terminals, coupling protein turnover with synaptic vesicle cycling and linking presynaptic-specific autophagy defects to Parkinson's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roeland Vanhauwaert
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sabine Kuenen
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Roy Masius
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Adekunle Bademosi
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Julia Manetsberger
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nils Schoovaerts
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Laura Bounti
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Serguei Gontcharenko
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jef Swerts
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sven Vilain
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marina Picillo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CEMAND), University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
| | - Paolo Barone
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CEMAND), University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
| | | | - Femke Ms de Vrij
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Steven A Kushner
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Natalia V Gounko
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Electron Microscopy Platform, VIB Bio-Imaging Core, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wim Mandemakers
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Bonifati
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Frederic A Meunier
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | - Sandra-Fausia Soukup
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium .,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrik Verstreken
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium .,Department of Human Genetics, Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease (LIND), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Tang BL. Rabs, Membrane Dynamics, and Parkinson's Disease. J Cell Physiol 2016; 232:1626-1633. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bor Luen Tang
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine; National University of Singapore; Singapore 117597
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering; National University of Singapore; Singapore 117456
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Park SC, Moon JC, Shin SY, Son H, Jung YJ, Kim NH, Kim YM, Jang MK, Lee JR. Functional characterization of alpha-synuclein protein with antimicrobial activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 478:924-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.08.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
11
|
Baksi S, Tripathi AK, Singh N. Alpha-synuclein modulates retinal iron homeostasis by facilitating the uptake of transferrin-bound iron: Implications for visual manifestations of Parkinson's disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 97:292-306. [PMID: 27343690 PMCID: PMC4996775 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) in neurons of the substantia nigra is diagnostic of Parkinson's disease (PD), a neuro-motor disorder with prominent visual symptoms. Here, we demonstrate that α-syn, the principal protein involved in the pathogenesis of PD, is expressed widely in the neuroretina, and facilitates the uptake of transferrin-bound iron (Tf-Fe) by retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells that form the outer blood-retinal barrier. Absence of α-syn in knock-out mice (α-syn(-/-)) resulted in down-regulation of ferritin in the neuroretina, indicating depletion of cellular iron stores. A similar phenotype of iron deficiency was observed in the spleen, femur, and brain tissue of α-syn(-)(/-) mice, organs that utilize mainly Tf-Fe for their metabolic needs. The liver and kidney, organs that take up significant amounts of non-Tf-bound iron (NTBI), showed minimal change. Evaluation of the underlying mechanism in the human RPE47 cell line suggested a prominent role of α-syn in the uptake of Tf-Fe by modulating the endocytosis and recycling of transferrin (Tf)/transferrin-receptor (TfR) complex. Down-regulation of α-syn in RPE cells by RNAi resulted in the accumulation of Tf/TfR complex in common recycling endosomes (CREs), indicating disruption of recycling to the plasma membrane. Over-expression of exogenous α-syn in RPE cells, on the other hand, up-regulated ferritin and TfR expression. Interestingly, exposure to exogenous iron increased membrane association and co-localization of α-syn with TfR, supporting its role in iron uptake by the Tf/TfR complex. Together with our observations indicating basolateral expression of α-syn and TfR on RPE cells in vivo, this study reveals a novel function of α-syn in the uptake of Tf-Fe by the neuroretina. It is likely that retinal iron dyshomeostasis due to impaired or altered function of α-syn contributes to the visual symptoms associated with PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shounak Baksi
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Ajai K Tripathi
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Neena Singh
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Eftekharzadeh B, Hyman BT, Wegmann S. Structural studies on the mechanism of protein aggregation in age related neurodegenerative diseases. Mech Ageing Dev 2016; 156:1-13. [PMID: 27005270 DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Revised: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The progression of many neurodegenerative diseases is assumed to be caused by misfolding of specific characteristic diseases related proteins, resulting in aggregation and fibril formation of these proteins. Protein misfolding associated age related diseases, although different in disease manifestations, share striking similarities. In all cases, one disease protein aggregates and loses its function or additionally shows a toxic gain of function. However, the clear link between these individual amyloid-like protein aggregates and cellular toxicity is often still uncertain. The similar features of protein misfolding and aggregation in this group of proteins, all involved in age related neurodegenerative diseases, results in high interest in characterization of their structural properties. We review here recent findings on structural properties of some age related disease proteins, in the context of their biological importance in disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Eftekharzadeh
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
| | - Bradley T Hyman
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | - Susanne Wegmann
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Mass General Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Chua CEL, Tang BL. The role of the small GTPase Rab31 in cancer. J Cell Mol Med 2014; 19:1-10. [PMID: 25472813 PMCID: PMC4288343 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the small GTPase family Rab are emerging as potentially important factors in cancer development and progression. A good number of Rabs have been implicated or associated with various human cancers, and much recent excitement has been associated with the roles of the Rab11 subfamily member Rab25 and its effector, the Rab coupling protein (RCP), in tumourigenesis and metastasis. In this review, we focus on a Rab5 subfamily member, Rab31, and its implicated role in cancer. Well recognized as a breast cancer marker with good prognostic value, recent findings have provided some insights as to the mechanism underlying Rab31's influence on oncogenesis. Levels of Oestrogen Receptor α (ERα)- responsive Rab31 could be elevated through stabilization of its transcript by the RNA binding protein HuR, or though activation by the oncoprotein mucin1-C (MUC1-C), which forms a transcriptional complex with ERα. Elevated Rab31 stabilizes MUC1-C levels in an auto-inductive loop that could lead to aberrant signalling and gene expression associated with cancer progression. Rab31 and its guanine nucleotide exchange factor GAPex-5 have, however, also been shown to enhance early endosome-late endosome transport and degradation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). The multifaceted action and influences of Rab31 in cancer is discussed in the light of its new interacting partners and pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christelle En Lin Chua
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Truchet S, Chat S, Ollivier-Bousquet M. Milk secretion: The role of SNARE proteins. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:119-30. [PMID: 24264376 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-013-9311-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
During lactation, polarized mammary epithelial secretory cells (MESCs) secrete huge quantities of the nutrient molecules that make up milk, i.e. proteins, fat globules and soluble components such as lactose and minerals. Some of these nutrients are only produced by the MESCs themselves, while others are to a great extent transferred from the blood. MESCs can thus be seen as a crossroads for both the uptake and the secretion with cross-talks between intracellular compartments that enable spatial and temporal coordination of the secretion of the milk constituents. Although the physiology of lactation is well understood, the molecular mechanisms underlying the secretion of milk components remain incompletely characterized. Major milk proteins, namely caseins, are secreted by exocytosis, while the milk fat globules are released by budding, being enwrapped by the apical plasma membrane. Prolactin, which stimulates the transcription of casein genes, also induces the production of arachidonic acid, leading to accelerated casein transport and/or secretion. Because of their ability to form complexes that bridge two membranes and promote their fusion, SNARE (Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-Sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor) proteins are involved in almost all intracellular trafficking steps and exocytosis. As SNAREs can bind arachidonic acid, they could be the effectors of the secretagogue effect of prolactin in MESCs. Indeed, some SNAREs have been observed between secretory vesicles and lipid droplets suggesting that these proteins could not only orchestrate the intracellular trafficking of milk components but also act as key regulators for both the coupling and coordination of milk product secretion in response to hormones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Truchet
- INRA, UR1196 Génomique et Physiologie de la Lactation, 78352, Jouy-en-Josas Cedex, France,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Hutt DM, Balch WE. Expanding proteostasis by membrane trafficking networks. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2013; 5:cshperspect.a013383. [PMID: 23426524 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a013383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The folding biology common to all three kingdoms of life (Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya) is proteostasis. The proteostasis network (PN) functions as a "cloud" to generate, protect, and degrade the proteome. Whereas microbes (Bacteria, Archaea) have a single compartment, Eukarya have numerous subcellular compartments. We examine evidence that Eukarya compartments use coat, tether, and fusion (CTF) membrane trafficking components to form an evolutionarily advanced arm of the PN that we refer to as the "trafficking PN" (TPN). We suggest that the TPN builds compartments by generating a mosaic of integrated cargo-specific trafficking signatures (TRaCKS). TRaCKS control the temporal and spatial features of protein-folding biology based on the Anfinsen principle that the local environment plays a critical role in managing protein structure. TPN-generated endomembrane compartments apply a "quinary" level of structural control to modify the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures defined by the primary polypeptide-chain sequence. The development of Anfinsen compartments provides a unifying foundation for understanding the purpose of endomembrane biology and its capacity to drive extant Eukarya function and diversity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Darren M Hutt
- Department of Cell Biology and Department of Chemical Physiology, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology and the Dorris Institute for Neurological Diseases, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Blom T, Schmiedt ML, Wong AM, Kyttälä A, Soronen J, Jauhiainen M, Tyynelä J, Cooper JD, Jalanko A. Exacerbated neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis phenotype in Cln1/5 double-knockout mice. Dis Model Mech 2013; 6:342-57. [PMID: 23065637 PMCID: PMC3597017 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.010140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Both CLN1 and CLN5 deficiencies lead to severe neurodegenerative diseases of childhood, known as neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs). The broadly similar phenotypes of NCL mouse models, and the potential for interactions between NCL proteins, raise the possibility of shared or convergent disease mechanisms. To begin addressing these issues, we have developed a new mouse model lacking both Cln1 and Cln5 genes. These double-knockout (Cln1/5 dko) mice were fertile, showing a slight decrease in expected Mendelian breeding ratios, as well as impaired embryoid body formation by induced pluripotent stem cells derived from Cln1/5 dko fibroblasts. Typical disease manifestations of the NCLs, i.e. seizures and motor dysfunction, were detected at the age of 3 months, earlier than in either single knockout mouse. Pathological analyses revealed a similar exacerbation and earlier onset of disease in Cln1/5 dko mice, which exhibited a pronounced accumulation of autofluorescent storage material. Cortical demyelination and more pronounced glial activation in cortical and thalamic regions was followed by cortical neuron loss. Alterations in lipid metabolism in Cln1/5 dko showed a specific increase in plasma phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) activity. Finally, gene expression profiling of Cln1/5 dko cortex revealed defects in myelination and immune response pathways, with a prominent downregulation of α-synuclein in Cln1/5 dko mouse brains. The simultaneous loss of both Cln1 and Cln5 genes might enhance the typical pathological phenotypes of these mice by disrupting or downregulating shared or convergent pathogenic pathways, which could potentially include interactions of CLN1 and CLN5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tea Blom
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Public Health Genomics Unit, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mia-Lisa Schmiedt
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Public Health Genomics Unit, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Andrew M. Wong
- Pediatric Storage Disorders Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Centre for the Cellular Basis of Behaviour, James Black Centre, King's Health Partners Centre for Neurodegeneration Research, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Aija Kyttälä
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Public Health Genomics Unit, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jarkko Soronen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Public Health Genomics Unit, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matti Jauhiainen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Public Health Genomics Unit, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaana Tyynelä
- Finnish Medicines Agency, Helsinki, Finland and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jonathan D. Cooper
- Pediatric Storage Disorders Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Centre for the Cellular Basis of Behaviour, James Black Centre, King's Health Partners Centre for Neurodegeneration Research, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Anu Jalanko
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Public Health Genomics Unit, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, FIMM, Biomedicum Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Dudzik CG, Walter ED, Abrams BS, Jurica MS, Millhauser GL. Coordination of copper to the membrane-bound form of α-synuclein. Biochemistry 2012; 52:53-60. [PMID: 23252394 DOI: 10.1021/bi301475q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Aggregation of the 140-amino acid protein α-synuclein (α-syn) is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease (PD). α-Syn is a copper binding protein with potential function as a regulator of metal-dependent redox activity. Epidemiological studies suggest that human exposure to excess copper increases the incidence of PD. α-Syn exists in both solution and membrane-bound forms. Previous work evaluated the Cu(2+) uptake for α-syn in solution and identified Met1-Asp2 and His50 as primary contributors to the coordination shell, with a dissociation constant of approximately 0.1 nM. When bound to the membrane bilayer, α-syn takes on a predominantly helical conformation, which spatially separates His50 from the N-terminus of the protein and is therefore incompatible with the copper coordination geometry of the solution state. Here we use circular dichroism and electron paramagnetic resonance (continuous wave and pulsed) to evaluate the coordination of copper to the membrane-bound form of α-syn. In this molecular environment, Cu(2+) binds exclusively to the N-terminus of the protein (Met1-Asp2) with no participation from His50. Copper does not alter the membrane-bound α-syn conformation or enhance the release of the protein from the bilayer. The Cu(2+) affinity is similar to that identified for solution α-syn, suggesting that copper coordination is retained in the membrane. Consideration of these results demonstrates that copper exerts its greatest conformational effect on the solution form of α-syn.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher G Dudzik
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Thayanidhi N, Liang Y, Hasegawa H, Nycz DC, Oorschot V, Klumperman J, Hay JC. R-SNARE ykt6 resides in membrane-associated protease-resistant protein particles and modulates cell cycle progression when over-expressed. Biol Cell 2012; 104:397-417. [DOI: 10.1111/boc.201100048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
19
|
Bellucci A, Zaltieri M, Navarria L, Grigoletto J, Missale C, Spano P. From α-synuclein to synaptic dysfunctions: new insights into the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 2012; 1476:183-202. [PMID: 22560500 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein is a natively unfolded protein playing a key role in the regulation of several neuronal synaptic functions in physiological and pathological conditions. Many studies, over the past years, have shown that it is actively involved in PD pathophysiology. Alpha-synuclein is integrated in a complex network of neuronal processes through the interaction with cytosolic and synaptic proteins. Hence, it is not the sole α-synuclein pathology but its effects on diverse protein partners and specific cellular pathways in the membrane and/or cytosolic districts such as endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi, axonal and synaptic compartments of dopaminergic neurons, that may cause the onset of neuronal cell dysfunction and degeneration which are among the key pathological features of the PD brain. Here we summarize a series of experimental data supporting that α-synuclein aggregation may induce dysfunction and degeneration of synapses via these multiple mechanisms. Taken together, these data add new insights into the complex mechanisms underlying synaptic derangement in PD and other α-synucleinopathies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Brain Integration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Bellucci
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnologies and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bellucci A, Navarria L, Zaltieri M, Missale C, Spano P. α-Synuclein synaptic pathology and its implications in the development of novel therapeutic approaches to cure Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 2011; 1432:95-113. [PMID: 22153624 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by a progressive loss of dopamine (DA) neurons of the nigrostriatal system and by the presence of Lewy bodies (LB), proteinaceous inclusions mainly composed of filamentous α-synuclein aggregates. Alpha-synuclein is a natively unfolded protein which plays a central role in the control of dopaminergic neuronal functions and which is thought to be critically implicated in PD pathophysiology. Indeed, besides the fact that α-synuclein is the main protein component of LB, genetic studies showed that mutations and multiplications of the α-synuclein gene are responsible for the onset of familial forms of PD. A large body of evidence indicates that α-synuclein pathology at dopaminergic synapses may underlie the onset of neuronal cell dysfunction and degeneration in the PD brain. Thus, since the available therapeutic approaches to cure this disease are still limited, we hypothesized that the analysis of the α-synuclein synaptic proteome/lipidome may represent a tool to identify novel potential therapeutic targets to cure this disorder. We thus performed a critical review of studies describing α-synuclein pathophysiology at synaptic sites in experimental models of PD and in this paper we outline the most relevant findings regarding the specific modulatory effects exerted by α-synuclein in the control of synaptic functions in physiological and pathological conditions. The conclusions of these studies allow to single out novel potential therapeutic targets among the α-synuclein synaptic partners. These targets may be considered for the development of new pharmacological and gene-based strategies to cure PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Bellucci
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnology and National Institute of Neuroscience - Italy, School of Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Chua CEL, Gan BQ, Tang BL. Involvement of members of the Rab family and related small GTPases in autophagosome formation and maturation. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:3349-58. [PMID: 21687989 PMCID: PMC11114630 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0748-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2011] [Revised: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Macroautophagy, the process by which cytosolic components and organelles are engulfed and degraded by a double-membrane structure, could be viewed as a specialized, multistep membrane transport process. As such, it intersects with the exocytic and endocytic membrane trafficking pathways. A number of Rab GTPases which regulate secretory and endocytic membrane traffic have been shown to play either critical or accessory roles in autophagy. The biogenesis of the pre-autophagosomal isolation membrane (or phagophore) is dependent on the functionality of Rab1. A non-canonical, Atg5/Atg7-independent mode of autophagosome generation from the trans-Golgi or endosome requires Rab9. Other Rabs, such as Rab5, Rab24, Rab33, and Rab7 have all been shown to be required, or involved at various stages of autophagosomal genesis and maturation. Another small GTPase, RalB, was very recently demonstrated to induce isolation membrane formation and maturation via its engagement of the exocyst complex, a known Rab effector. We summarize here what is now known about the involvement of Rabs in autophagy, and discuss plausible mechanisms with future perspectives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christelle En Lin Chua
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597 Singapore
| | - Bin Qi Gan
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597 Singapore
| | - Bor Luen Tang
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597 Singapore
| |
Collapse
|