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Weydmann G, Miguel PM, Hakim N, Dubé L, Silveira PP, Bizarro L. How are overweight and obesity associated with reinforcement learning deficits? A systematic review. Appetite 2024; 193:107123. [PMID: 37992896 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2023.107123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Reinforcement learning (RL) refers to the ability to learn stimulus-response or response-outcome associations relevant to the acquisition of behavioral repertoire and adaptation to the environment. Research data from correlational and case-control studies have shown that obesity is associated with impairments in RL. The aim of the present study was to systematically review how obesity and overweight are associated with RL performance. More specifically, the relationship between high body mass index (BMI) and task performance was explored through the analysis of specific RL processes associated with different physiological, computational, and behavioral manifestations. Our systematic analyses indicate that obesity might be associated with impairments in the use of aversive outcomes to change ongoing behavior, as revealed by results involving instrumental negative reinforcement and extinction/reversal learning, but further research needs to be conducted to confirm this association. Hypotheses regarding how obesity might be associated with altered RL were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gibson Weydmann
- Department of Psychology, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul (UFRGS), 2600 Ramiro Barcelos, Postal Code 90035-003, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal Neurological Institute, 3801 University, Postal Code H3A 2B4, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Patricia Maidana Miguel
- Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal Neurological Institute, 3801 University, Postal Code H3A 2B4, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 1033 Pine Ave W, Postal Code H3A 1A1, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nour Hakim
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 100 George Street, Postal Code M1C 1A4, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Desautels Faculty of Management, McGill Center for the Convergence of Health and Economics, McGill University, 1001 Sherbrooke, Postal Code H3A 1G5, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Laurette Dubé
- Desautels Faculty of Management, McGill Center for the Convergence of Health and Economics, McGill University, 1001 Sherbrooke, Postal Code H3A 1G5, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Patricia Pelufo Silveira
- Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montreal Neurological Institute, 3801 University, Postal Code H3A 2B4, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, 1033 Pine Ave W, Postal Code H3A 1A1, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Lisiane Bizarro
- Department of Psychology, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul (UFRGS), 2600 Ramiro Barcelos, Postal Code 90035-003, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Kang S, Larrabee G, Nair S, Goldfarb EV. Perceptual Generalization of Alcohol-Related Value Characterizes Risky Drinkers. Psychol Sci 2023; 34:1146-1162. [PMID: 37682597 PMCID: PMC10985388 DOI: 10.1177/09567976231181516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Generalizing from past experiences to novel situations is critical for adaptive behavior, whereas overgeneralization can promote maladaptive responses (e.g., context-inappropriate fear in anxiety). Here, we propose that overgeneralizing alcohol-related associations characterizes risky drinking. We conducted two online experiments assessing generalization of alcohol-related gains (Study 1) and losses (Study 2) among individuals who engaged in light or risky patterns of drinking (Study 1: N = 88, 24-44 years old; Study 2: N = 87, 21-44 years old). After learning to associate cards with alcohol and non-alcohol-related outcomes, participants chose whether to play with cards varying in perceptual similarity to those shown during conditioning. Finally, participants completed a surprise recognition memory test for all outcomes. Although both groups showed comparable conditioning, we found that risky drinkers overgeneralized alcohol-related gains and losses. Risky drinkers also showed a bias toward recognizing alcohol-related images. These results indicate a novel role for overgeneralization of alcohol-related gains and losses as a mechanism associated with risky drinking.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Elizabeth V. Goldfarb
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University
- Department of Psychology, Yale University
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University
- National Center for PTSD, US Department of Veterans Affairs, West Haven, Connecticut
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Spix M, Schutzeichel F, Jansen A. Can you learn to starve yourself? Inducing food avoidance in the laboratory. Behav Res Ther 2023; 166:104340. [PMID: 37267783 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2023.104340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The restriction of energy intake is a central and persistent symptom of anorexia nervosa. Recent models of the disorder suggest that food restrictions are learned avoidance behaviours, which are acquired and maintained by classical and operant conditioning. The present study aims to test this learning model of food restriction. It investigates whether introducing negative consequences for the intake of tasty high-calorie food and introducing positive consequences for its avoidance can create food avoidance, increase fear of food, and decrease eating desires in healthy individuals. 104 women were randomly assigned to an experimental or control condition and completed an appetitive conditioning and avoidance learning task. While the experimental condition received money after avoiding the tasty high-calorie food item and heard an aversive sound after not avoiding food intake, the control condition never received these consequences. In the extinction phase, reward and punishment discontinued for both conditions. We measured avoidance frequency, mouse movements, fear, eating desires and stimulus liking. Participants in the experimental condition avoided the food more often than controls and showed increased fear, reduced eating desires and less liking for cues associated with food intake. These results support the notion that food avoidance behaviours, reduced eating desires and fear of food can be learned via classical and operant conditioning. Conditioning paradigms might be a useful tool to study the development and maintenance of food restriction in anorexia nervosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Spix
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
| | - Franziska Schutzeichel
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Anita Jansen
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
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Pardo-Garcia TR, Gu K, Woerner RKR, Dus M. Food memory circuits regulate eating and energy balance. Curr Biol 2023; 33:215-227.e3. [PMID: 36528025 PMCID: PMC9877168 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, learning circuits play an essential role in energy balance by creating associations between sensory cues and the rewarding qualities of food. This process is altered by diet-induced obesity, but the causes and mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we exploited the relative simplicity and wealth of knowledge about the D. melanogaster reinforcement learning network, the mushroom body, in order to study the relationship between the dietary environment, dopamine-induced plasticity, and food associations. We show flies that are fed a high-sugar diet cannot make associations between sensory cues and the rewarding properties of sugar. This deficit was caused by diet exposure, not fat accumulation, and specifically by lower dopamine-induced plasticity onto mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) during learning. Importantly, food memories dynamically tune the output of MBONs during eating, which instead remains fixed in sugar-diet animals. Interestingly, manipulating the activity of MBONs influenced eating and fat mass, depending on the diet. Altogether, this work advances our fundamental understanding of the mechanisms, causes, and consequences of the dietary environment on reinforcement learning and ingestive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaut R Pardo-Garcia
- The Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; The Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Kathleen Gu
- The Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Riley K R Woerner
- The Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Monica Dus
- The Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; The Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; The Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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Kavaliotis E, Boardman JM, Clark JW, Ogeil RP, Verdejo-García A, Drummond SPA. The relationship between sleep and appetitive conditioning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 144:105001. [PMID: 36529310 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.105001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis (PROSPERO registration animal/human studies: CRD42021234793/CRD42021234790) examined the relationship between sleep and appetitive conditioning. Inclusion criteria included: a) appetitive conditioning paradigm; b) measure of conditioning; c) sleep measurement and/or sleep loss; d) human and/etor non-human animal samples; and e) written in English. Searches of seven databases returned 3777 publications. The final sample consisted of 42 studies using primarily animal samples and involving food- and drug-related conditioning tasks. We found sleep loss disrupted appetitive conditioning of food rewards (p < 0.001) but potentiated appetitive conditioning of drug rewards (p < 0.001). Furthermore, sleep loss negatively impacted extinction learning irrespective of the reward type. Post-learning sleep was associated with increases in REM sleep (p = 0.02). Findings suggest sleep loss potentiates the impact of psychoactive substances in a manner likely to produce an increased risk of problematic substance use. In obese/overweight populations, sleep loss may be associated with deficits in the conditioning and extinction of reward-related behaviours. Further research should assess the relationship between sleep and appetitive conditioning in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Kavaliotis
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Johanna M Boardman
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Jacob W Clark
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Rowan P Ogeil
- Eastern Health Clinical School and Monash Addiction Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia; Turning Point, Eastern Health, Victoria 3121, Australia
| | - Antonio Verdejo-García
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Sean P A Drummond
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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Melles H, Spix M, Jansen A. Avoidance in Anorexia Nervosa: Towards a research agenda. Physiol Behav 2021; 238:113478. [PMID: 34058219 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Anorexia Nervosa is a severe and disabling mental disorder and a huge challenge to treat. Intense fears of e.g., food, eating, weight gain and social evaluation are core features of anorexia nervosa and obstacles during treatment. The perceived threats trigger avoidance and safety behaviors like highly restrictive eating, strict eating rules, vomiting and body checking, to minimize feared outcomes. The role of avoidance in anorexia nervosa is however hardly studied experimentally. In the present article, the focus is on a new transdiagnostic research agenda featuring both basic and clinical experimental research into avoidance as a most important mechanism maintaining the eating disorder. Avoidance learning and the generalization of learned avoidance behaviors are discussed, as well as safety behaviors and the need for inhibitory learning as a treatment target during exposure therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Melles
- Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Michelle Spix
- Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Anita Jansen
- Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
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