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Hassan E, Obaidoon Y, Mostafiz MM, Senior L. Effect of Plant Essential Oil Formulations on Bemisia tabaci MEAM1 (Gennadius) and Its Parasitoid Eretmocerus hayati (Zolnerowich and Rose). PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:4137. [PMID: 38140464 PMCID: PMC10747523 DOI: 10.3390/plants12244137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Silverleaf whitefly (SLW), Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), consists of genetically diverse species known to cause significant destruction in many crops around the world. Nowadays, synthetic insecticides are a key component in the management of this pest. However, they also come with disadvantages, such as environmental pollution, pest resistance and recurrence, and toxicity to pollinators and natural enemies. Essential oils from aromatic plants and biocontrol agents may provide a new and safe alternative to synthetic chemicals. In this study, we assessed the lethal impact of three new plant essential oil formulations (referred to as F1, F2, and F3) against the developmental stages of B. tabaci and its parasitoid Eretmocerus hayati (Zolnerowich and Rose) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). The tested formulations consisted of combinations of mustard oil and different surfactants. The formulations were effective against the eggs and nymphal stages of B. tabaci. At the highest concentration assessed (1.23%), F1 was the most effective formulation against the eggs, resulting in 85% mortality, whereas F2 was most effective against the nymphs (92.5% and 88.3% mortality for the young and old nymphs, respectively). However, adult mortality rates were below 40% for all the tested formulations. The range of median lethal concentration (LC50) values was between 0.65 and 1.05% for B. tabaci. The side effects of the three formulations were assessed against E. hayati, treated as parasitized nymphs of B. tabaci. At the highest tested concentration (1.23%), F2 and F3 resulted in 80% and 70% mortality of the parasitoids, respectively (classified as moderately or slightly harmful according to the IOBC), whereas F1 resulted in 17.5% mortality. As F1 was effective against SLW with minimal effects on the parasitoid, it is the most suitable formulation of those tested for use in an integrated pest management (IPM) program targeting the younger life stages of B. tabaci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Errol Hassan
- School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4343, Australia (Y.O.)
| | - Yasir Obaidoon
- School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4343, Australia (Y.O.)
| | - Md Munir Mostafiz
- Agricultural Science and Technology Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Republic of Korea;
| | - Lara Senior
- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
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Hernandez-Rocha JV, Vásquez-Morales SG. The Potential of Magnolia spp. in the Production of Alternative Pest Control Substances. Molecules 2023; 28:4681. [PMID: 37375236 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28124681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The irrational use of synthetic pesticides in agriculture has had negative impacts on ecosystems and contributed to environmental pollution. Botanical pesticides offer a clean biotechnological alternative to meet the agricultural challenges posed by pests and arthropods. This article proposes the use of fruit structures (fruit, peel, seed, and sarcotesta) of several Magnolia species as biopesticides. The potential of extracts, essential oils, and secondary metabolites of these structures for pest control is described. From 11 Magnolia species, 277 natural compounds were obtained, 68.7% of which were terpenoids, phenolic compounds, and alkaloids. Finally, the importance of a correct management of Magnolia species to ensure their sustainable use and conservation is stressed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suria Gisela Vásquez-Morales
- Department of Biology, Division of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato 36050, Mexico
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Liang JJ, Lv TM, Xu ZY, Huang XX, Song SJ. Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng: Phytochemical review and Chemotaxonomic values. BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2022.104413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Okoduwa SIR, Umar IA, James DB, Inuwa HM, Habila JD, Venditti A. Bioguided fractionation of hypoglycaemic component in methanol extract of Vernonia amygdalina: an in vivo study. Nat Prod Res 2020; 35:5943-5947. [PMID: 32787625 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2020.1805605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Nine components (C1-C9) were isolated from chloroform fraction of fractionated methanol extracts of Vernonia amygdalina leaves (FMEVA) by column chromatography. All the components C1 to C9 were purified and screened for hypoglycaemic activities in type-2 diabetic rats. The most potent hypoglycaemic component was elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic (1D-, 2D-NMR, GC-MS, FTIR) data analysis. The Component C5 was found to be the most potent hypoglycaemic in reducing blood glucose by 12.55 ± 3.55% at 4 h post-oral administration, when compared to the positive (18.07 ± 1.20%) and negative (-1.99 ± 0.43%) controls. The spectroscopic data analysis reveals that the isolated compound has a structure consistent with 11β,13-dihydrovernolide. The isolated compound is part of the hypoglycaemic components present in V. amygdalina leaves that is responsible for the anti-diabetic activities. Further research is needed in the development of this compound or its derivatives for pharmaceutical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley I R Okoduwa
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.,Directorate of Research and Development, Nigerian Institute of Leather and Science Technology, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Isma'ila A Umar
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Dorcas B James
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Hajiya M Inuwa
- Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - James D Habila
- Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
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Chemical Defense of Yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius) Leaves against Phytophagous Insects: Insect Antifeedants from Yacón Leaf Trichomes. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9070848. [PMID: 32640580 PMCID: PMC7412168 DOI: 10.3390/plants9070848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Yacón is a perennial crop with high insect resistance. Its leaves have many glandular trichomes, which may be related to pest resistance. In order to collect the constituents of glandular trichomes, leaves were rinsed using dichloromethane (DCM) to obtain the rinsate, and the plant residues were subsequently extracted by DCM to obtain a DCM extract containing the internal constituents of yacón leaves. Biologic evaluations revealed that insect antifeedant activity was stronger for the rinsate than for the DCM extract against the common cutworm. The major constituents of rinsate were isolated by silica gel flash chromatography and were identified as sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), uvedalin (1) and enhydrin (2) and uvedalin aldehyde (3), collectively known as melampolides. Although SLs 1 and 2 exhibited remarkably strong insect antifeedant activity, SL 3 and reduced corresponding derivatives (4 and 5) of 1 and 2 exhibited moderate insect antifeedant activity. Additionally, the two analogs, parthenolide (6) and erioflorin (7) showed moderate insect antifeedant activity. The results indicate that the substituent patterns of SLs may be related to the insect antifeedant activities. The insect antifeedant activities of SLs 1 and 2 were similar to that of the positive control azadirachtin A (8), and thus these natural products may function in chemical defense against herbivores.
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Applications of Sesquiterpene Lactones: A Review of Some Potential Success Cases. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10093001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Sesquiterpene lactones, a vast range of terpenoids isolated from Asteraceae species, exhibit a broad spectrum of biological effects and several of them are already commercially available, such as artemisinin. Here the most recent and impactful results of in vivo, preclinical and clinical studies involving a selection of ten sesquiterpene lactones (alantolactone, arglabin, costunolide, cynaropicrin, helenalin, inuviscolide, lactucin, parthenolide, thapsigargin and tomentosin) are presented and discussed, along with some of their derivatives. In the authors’ opinion, these compounds have been neglected compared to others, although they could be of great use in developing important new pharmaceutical products. The selected sesquiterpenes show promising anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects, acting on various targets. Moreover, they exhibit antifungal, anxiolytic, analgesic, and antitrypanosomal activities. Several studies discussed here clearly show the potential that some of them have in combination therapy, as sensitizing agents to facilitate and enhance the action of drugs in clinical use. The derivatives show greater pharmacological value since they have better pharmacokinetics, stability, potency, and/or selectivity. All these natural terpenoids and their derivatives exhibit properties that invite further research by the scientific community.
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Aoki D, Okumura W, Akita T, Matsushita Y, Yoshida M, Sano Y, Fukushima K. Microscopic distribution of syringin in freeze-fixed Syringa vulgaris stems. PLANT DIRECT 2019; 3:e00155. [PMID: 31388649 PMCID: PMC6676449 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Monolignols are precursors of lignin, and their glucosides are often found in plants. Glucosylation creates water-soluble and chemically stable monolignols by protecting the phenolic hydroxyl group. To discuss the role of sinapyl alcohol glucoside, syringin, in planta, the cellular distribution of syringin in the transverse and radial surfaces of quick-frozen stems of Syringa vulgaris L. (lilac) was visualized by cryo-time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy (cryo-TOF-SIMS/SEM) analyses. The amount and rough distribution of syringin were confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography measurements using serial tangential sections of freeze-fixed lilac stems. The syringin distribution was also discussed with reference to the tissue classification from microscopic observations. Syringin was mainly found in the phloem region. In the xylem region, syringin was evenly distributed irrespective of the cell type from the cambial zone to the early differentiating stage region and selectively distributed in vessels in the later differentiating stage region. After the lignification of wood fibers, syringin was found in rays and some vessels in the initial part of the annual rings. Previously, artificially administered isotope-labeled syringin was shown to be assimilated into lignin in the differentiating xylem region. Based on this, our present data showing syringin storage in the differentiating xylem region and its variation depending on the lignification stage suggest that syringin works as a lignin precursor. Additionally, detection of syringin in vessels and rays indicates intercellular transportation of syringin in lilac stems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Aoki
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
| | - Wakaba Okumura
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
| | - Takuya Akita
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
| | | | - Masato Yoshida
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
| | - Yuzou Sano
- Research Faculty of AgricultureHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
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Nawrot J, Budzianowski J, Nowak G. Phytochemical profiles of the leaves of Stizolophus balsamita and Psephellus sibiricus and their chemotaxonomic implications. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2019; 159:172-178. [PMID: 30634079 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Seven germacranolides - balsamin, izospiciformin, stizolin, 9α-hydroxyparthenolide, 8α-E-(4'-hydroxy)-senecioyloxy-9α-hydroxyparthenolide, stizolicin and 11βH,13-dihydrostizolicin, as well as one undescribed phenol glycoside 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) propyl senecioate 3-O-β-glucopyranoside were isolated from the leaves of Stizolophus balsamita growing in Iran. Three coumarins, scoparone, scopoletin, umbelliferone and two guaianolides, cynaropicrin and desacylcynaropicrin 8α-(Z)-(4'-hydroxy-2'-methyl)butenoate (= cebellin F) were isolated from the leaves of Psephellus sibiricus. Phytochemical profile of Stizolophus balsamita growing in Iran differs from that of Stizolophus balsamita growing in Kazakhstan. Therefore, the taxonomic separation of Stizolophus balsamita from Iran is suggested. The results also suggest that isolated coumarins may be a chemotaxonomic marker of the Psephellus species. Moreover, the presence of germacranolides in Centaureinae species with stout apical spine ended bracts of flower (S. balsamita) and guaianolides in other species with appendages of the bracts without apical spine (P. sibiricus) suggests a possible connection between the chemical structure of the sesquiterpene lactones and morphology of flowers in the species of the Centaureinae subtribe. In addition, we propose a new 1H NMR approach for the detection of hydroxyl groups in sesquiterpene lactones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Nawrot
- Department of Medicinal and Cosmetic Natural Products, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Mazowiecka Str. 33, 60-623 Poznan, Poland
| | - Jaromir Budzianowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany and Plant Biotechnology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Sw. Marii Magdaleny Str. 14, 61-861 Poznan, Poland
| | - Gerard Nowak
- Department of Medicinal and Cosmetic Natural Products, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Mazowiecka Str. 33, 60-623 Poznan, Poland.
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11
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Kamizela A, Gawdzik B, Urbaniak M, Lechowicz Ł, Białońska A, Gonciarz W, Chmiela M. Synthesis, Characterization, Cytotoxicity, and Antibacterial Properties of trans-γ-Halo-δ-lactones. ChemistryOpen 2018; 7:543-550. [PMID: 30038879 PMCID: PMC6055027 DOI: 10.1002/open.201800110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A new four-step pathway for the synthesis of γ-halo-δ-lactones is described from simple, commercially available substrates: aryl bromides and 3-methyl crotonaldehyde. The halogenolactonization reaction of β,δ-substituted, γ,δ-unsaturated carboxylic acid 4 a-c is regio- and stereoselective and gives only the trans-isomers of lactones 5 a-c, 6 a-c, and 7 a-c. The structures of all synthesized compounds were confirmed by using spectroscopic methods. For bromolactone, containing a naphthyl moiety in the structure, crystallographic analysis was also performed. The lactones were tested for their cytotoxic activity against L929 cell lines (mouse fibroblasts) and antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli strains ATCC 8739 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 65389. Compounds 5 a, 5 c, 7 a, and 7 b statistically significantly inhibited the metabolic activity of mouse fibroblasts L929. Compounds 5 b and 6 a were not cytotoxic towards L929 cells, but showed moderate bactericidal properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Kamizela
- Institute of ChemistryJan Kochanowski UniversityŚwiętokrzyska 15 G25–406KielcePoland
| | - Barbara Gawdzik
- Institute of ChemistryJan Kochanowski UniversityŚwiętokrzyska 15 G25–406KielcePoland
| | - Mariusz Urbaniak
- Institute of ChemistryJan Kochanowski UniversityŚwiętokrzyska 15 G25–406KielcePoland
| | - Łukasz Lechowicz
- Institute of BiologyJan Kochanowski UniversityŚwiętokrzyska 15 G25–406KielcePoland
| | - Agata Białońska
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of WroclawF. Joliot-Curie 1450–383WrocławPoland
| | - Weronika Gonciarz
- Dept. of Immunology and Infectious BiologyUniversity of LódzBanacha 12/1690–237ŁódźPoland
| | - Magdalena Chmiela
- Dept. of Immunology and Infectious BiologyUniversity of LódzBanacha 12/1690–237ŁódźPoland
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Insecticidal effects of Vernonanthura nebularum against two economically important pest insects. Saudi J Biol Sci 2018; 26:881-889. [PMID: 31303815 PMCID: PMC6601130 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vernonanthura nebularum (Cabrera) H. Rob. (Asteraceae), an endemic species from the north of Argentina, is a rich source of elephantopus-type sesquiterpene lactones. These compounds have proved to be promising antiparasitic agents, but there is no report about their action against pest insects. In this work we studied for the first time the antifeedant and toxic effects of V. nebularum natural products against the fall army warm Spodoptera frugiperda Smith and the oviposition deterrent activity against the fruit fly Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann. As a result, we found that extracts, fractions composed of sesquiterpene lactones and pure sesquiterpene lactones altered larval feeding behavior in the food choice test. Nutritional parameters of S. frugiperda larvae were also affected. Fraction II (300 μg/g of diet.), containing compounds 1, 2 and 3, was the most toxic substance with 80% pupal mortality and wing malformations in adults. In oviposition deterrent experiments against Ceratitis capitata, we observed a moderate effect at 30 μg/cm2 of the test compound. The most active substances were the methanolic extract, dichloromethane subextract and lactone 2. According to our results, V. nebularum natural products could be used for maximizing the effectiveness and specificity in future insecticide design with specific or multiple target sites, while ensuring the economic and ecological sustainability, in addition to combat the increasing resistance rates developed by synthetic pesticides.
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Chemical composition and insecticidal property of Myrsine stolonifera (Koidz.) walker (Family: Myrsinaceae) on Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae). Acta Trop 2017; 170:70-78. [PMID: 28237806 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Musca domestica is one of the most important pests of human health, and has developed strong resistance to many chemicals used for its control. One important approach for creating new pesticides is the exploration of novel compounds from plants. During a wide screening of plants with insecticidal properties that grow in southern China, we found that the methanolic extracts of Myrsine stolonifera had insecticidal activity against the adults of M. domestica. However, the insecticidal constituents and mechanisms of the M. stolonifera extracts remain unclear. The insecticidal components of the methanolic extracts of M. stolonifera were isolated with activity-guided fractionation. From the spectra of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS), the compounds were identified as syringing (1), 2,6-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyphenol-1-O-β-d-glu (2), kaempferol-3-O-glu-rha-glu (3), and quercetin-3-O-glu-rha-glu (4). This study is the first to report the spectral data for compounds 3 and 4, and their LC50 values were 0.52mg/g sugar and 0.36mg/g sugar 24h after treatment of the adults of M. domestica, respectively. Compounds 3 and 4 (LC25) also inhibited the activities of the enzymes carboxylesterase, glutathione S-transferase, mixed function oxidase, and acetylcholine esterase of adult M. domestica, particularly mixed function oxidase and acetylcholine esterase. The cytotoxic effects of compounds 3 and 4 on cell proliferation, mitochondrial membrane potentials (MMP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were demonstrated on SL-1 cells. From the extracts of M. stolonifera, quercetin-3-O-glu-rha-glu and kaempferol-3-O-glu-rha-glu have displayed comparable toxicities to rotenone on M. domestica and also exhibited cytotoxic effects on SL-1 cells; therefore, the extracts of M. stolonifera and their compounds have potential as botanical insecticides to control M. domestica.
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Venditti A, Sanna C, Lorenzetti LM, Ballero M, Bianco A. New Coumarinyl Ethers in Daphne oleoides Schreb. Collected from Sardinia Island. Chem Biodivers 2017; 14. [PMID: 28281331 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201700072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The phytochemical analysis of the ethanolic extract obtained from D. oleoides collected from Sardinia Island allowed the isolation of several new constituents for the species (3, 8, and 9) together with two new coumarinyl ethers (1 and 2) besides the chemotaxonomic markers of the Daphne genus (4 - 7 and 10) which are also known to possess interesting biological activities. The structure of the new compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic and spectrometric analyses. The identification of these compounds gives an experimental evidence of the variability in the secondary metabolites pattern owned by populations growing in restricted area in respect to populations not confined by geographical barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Venditti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, 'Sapienza' Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, IT-00185, Rome
| | - Cinzia Sanna
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell'Ambiente, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Via Sant'Ignazio da Laconi 13, IT-09123, Cagliari
| | - Lorenzo M Lorenzetti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, 'Sapienza' Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, IT-00185, Rome
| | - Mauro Ballero
- Co.S.Me.Se., Consorzio per lo Studio dei Metaboliti Secondari, via Sant'Ignazio da Laconi 13, IT-09123, Cagliari
| | - Armandodoriano Bianco
- Dipartimento di Chimica, 'Sapienza' Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, IT-00185, Rome
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Elsebai MF, Mocan A, Atanasov AG. Cynaropicrin: A Comprehensive Research Review and Therapeutic Potential As an Anti-Hepatitis C Virus Agent. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:472. [PMID: 28008316 PMCID: PMC5143615 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The different pharmacologic properties of plants-containing cynaropicrin, especially artichokes, have been known for many centuries. More recently, cynaropicrin exhibited a potential activity against all genotypes of hepatitis C virus (HCV). Cynaropicrin has also shown a wide range of other pharmacologic properties such as anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-trypanosomal, anti-malarial, antifeedant, antispasmodic, anti-photoaging, and anti-tumor action, as well as activation of bitter sensory receptors, and anti-inflammatory properties (e.g., associated with the suppression of the key pro-inflammatory NF-κB pathway). These pharmacological effects are very supportive factors to its outstanding activity against HCV. Structurally, cynaropicrin might be considered as a potential drug candidate, since it has no violations for the rule of five and its water-solubility could allow formulation as therapeutic injections. Moreover, cynaropicrin is a small molecule that can be easily synthesized and as the major constituent of the edible plant artichoke, which has a history of safe dietary use. In summary, cynaropicrin is a promising bioactive natural product that, with minor hit-to-lead optimization, might be developed as a drug for HCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud F Elsebai
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Andrei Mocan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Atanas G Atanasov
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of ViennaVienna, Austria; Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding of the Polish Academy of SciencesJastrzebiec, Poland
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Coll Aráoz MV, Mercado MI, Grau A, Catalán CAN. Intraspecific variation of sesquiterpene lactones associated to a latitudinal gradient in Smallanthus macroscyphus (Heliantheae: Asteraceae). CHEMOECOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-016-0213-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Mazur M, Skrobiszewski A, Gładkowski W, Podkowik M, Bania J, Nawrot J, Klejdysz T, Wawrzeńczyk C. Lactones 46. Synthesis, antifeedant and antibacterial activity of γ-lactones with a p-methoxyphenyl substituent. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2016; 72:489-496. [PMID: 25809724 DOI: 10.1002/ps.4012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lactones are well known for their biological activity. Grosheimin and repin are potent deterrents against storage pests. The unsaturated lactones have exhibited a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity. In our study we focused on the synthesis and evaluation of the biological activity of anisaldehyde derivatives containing lactone function. RESULTS Four new lactones were synthesized in one-step reductive dehalogenation or dehydrohalogenation reactions. These compounds, together with halolactones synthesized earlier, were tested for their antifeedant activity towards Sitophilus granaries, Trogoderma granarium and Tribolium confusum. The results of the tests showed that the highest activity, comparable with that of azadirachtin, towards all tested pests (total coefficient of deterrence 143.3-183.9) was observed for lactone with a vinyl substituent. The antibacterial activity of these compounds was also evaluated. The most potent lactone was active towards gram-positive bacteria strains. CONCLUSIONS The results of biological tests showed that halogen atom removal significantly increased the antifeedant properties of γ-lactones with a p-methoxyphenyl substituent. Unsaturated lactones are most promising in the context of their possible industrial application as crop protection agents. Further structural modifications of lactones with aromatic rings are needed to find important structural factors increasing the antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelina Mazur
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Andrzej Skrobiszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Witold Gładkowski
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Magdalena Podkowik
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jacek Bania
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jan Nawrot
- Institute of Plant Protection - National Reasearch Institute, Poznań, Poland
| | - Tomasz Klejdysz
- Institute of Plant Protection - National Reasearch Institute, Poznań, Poland
| | - Czesław Wawrzeńczyk
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
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Grudniewska A, Kłobucki M, Dancewicz K, Szczepanik M, Gabryś B, Wawrzeńczyk C. Synthesis and Antifeedant Activity of Racemic and Optically Active Hydroxy Lactones with the p-Menthane System. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131028. [PMID: 26132506 PMCID: PMC4488555 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Two racemic and two enantiomeric pairs of new δ-hydroxy-γ-lactones based on the p-menthane system were prepared from racemic and optically active cis- and trans-piperitols. The Johnson-Claisen rearrangement of the piperitols, epoxidation of the γδ-unsaturated esters, and acidic lactonization of the epoxy esters were described. The structures of the compounds were confirmed spectroscopically. The antifeedant activities of the hydroxy lactones and racemic piperitone were evaluated against three insect pests: lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer); Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say); and peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulz.). The chemical transformation of piperitone by the introduction of a lactone moiety and a hydroxy group changed its antifeedant properties. Behavioral bioassays showed that the feeding deterrent activity depended on the insect species and the structure of the compounds. All hydroxy lactones deterred the settling of M. persicae. Among chewing insects, the highest sensitivity showed A. diaperinus adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Grudniewska
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Marek Kłobucki
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Dancewicz
- Department of Biology and Ecology, University of Zielona Góra, Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Maryla Szczepanik
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
| | - Beata Gabryś
- Department of Biology and Ecology, University of Zielona Góra, Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Czesław Wawrzeńczyk
- Department of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
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Miranda MAFM, Varela RM, Torres A, Molinillo JMG, Gualtieri SCJ, Macías FA. Phytotoxins from Tithonia diversifolia. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2015; 78:1083-92. [PMID: 25879678 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower) is a dominant plant of the Asteraceae family, which suggests it produces allelochemicals that interfere with the development of surrounding plants. The study described herein was conducted to identify the compounds that have phytotoxic activity in T. diversifolia extracts. Ethyl acetate extracts of the leaves, stems, and roots showed significant inhibition of wheat coleoptile growth, and the leaf extract had similar inhibitory effects to a commercial herbicide. Fourteen compounds, 12 of which were sesquiterpene lactones, have been isolated. Two sesquiterpene lactones are reported for the first time and were isolated as an inseparable mixture of 8β-O-(2-methylbutyroyl)tirotundin (4) and 8β-O-(isovaleroyl)tirotundin (5). Their structures were determined by spectroscopic analysis, including NMR techniques and mass spectrometry. The sesquiterpene lactones 1β-methoxydiversifolin (6), tagitinin A (7), and tagitinin C (8) were the major products identified. These compounds were active on etiolated wheat coleoptiles, seed germination, and the growth of STS and weeds. The phytotoxic activity shown by these sesquiterpene lactones indicates that they are the compounds responsible for the activity exhibited by the initial extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A F M Miranda
- ‡Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, 13565905-São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rosa M Varela
- †Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, Instituto de Biomoleculas (INBIO), C/República Saharaui n, 7, 11510-Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Ascension Torres
- †Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, Instituto de Biomoleculas (INBIO), C/República Saharaui n, 7, 11510-Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - José M G Molinillo
- †Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, Instituto de Biomoleculas (INBIO), C/República Saharaui n, 7, 11510-Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Sonia C J Gualtieri
- ‡Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, 13565905-São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco A Macías
- †Grupo de Alelopatía, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, Instituto de Biomoleculas (INBIO), C/República Saharaui n, 7, 11510-Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
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Ali A, Tabanca N, Kurkcuoglu M, Duran A, Blythe EK, Khan IA, Baser KHC. Chemical composition, larvicidal, and biting deterrent activity of essential oils of two subspecies of Tanacetum argenteum (Asterales: Asteraceae) and individual constituents against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2014; 51:824-830. [PMID: 25118415 DOI: 10.1603/me13249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Water-distilled essential oils from dried aerial parts of Tanacetum argenteum (Lam.) Willd. subsp. argenteum (Lam.) and T. argenteum (Lam.) Willd. subsp. canum (C. Koch) Grierson were analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In total, 27 and 32 components were identified representing 97.2 and 98.7% of essential oils of subsp. argenteum and canum, respectively. Main compounds of T. argenteum subsp. argenteum were alpha-pinene (67.9%) and beta-pinene (4.8%), whereas alpha-pinene (53.6%), 1, 8-cineole (14.8%), and camphor (4.7%) were the major constituents of subsp. canum. Essential oil of T. argenteum subsp. canum at 10 microg/cm2 with Biting Deterrent Index (BDI) value of 0.73 showed activity similar to N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) at 25 mol/cm2, whereas the activity of essential oil of subsp. argenteum was lower (BDI = 0.47) than subsp. canum and DEET. Based on 95% CIs, activity of beta-caryophyllene (BDI value = 0.54) and caryophyllene oxide (BDI = 0.66) were significantly lower than DEET. In larval bioassays, essential oil of T. argenteum subsp. argenteum showed LC50 value of 93.34 ppm, whereas T. argenteum subsp. canum killed only 40% of the larvae at the highest dose of 125 ppm. Among the pure compounds, beta-caryophyllene (LC50 = 26 ppm) was the most potent compound followed by caryophyllene oxide (LC50 = 29 ppm), which was also similar to (-)-beta-pinene (LC50 = 35.9 ppm) against 1-d-old Ae. aegypti larvae at 24-h post treatment. Compounds (-)-alpha-pinene and (+)-beta-pinene showed similar larvicidal activity. Activity of (+)-alpha-pinene with LC50 value of was similar to the essential oil of T. argenteum subsp. argenteum.
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Bruno M, Bancheva S, Rosselli S, Maggio A. Sesquiterpenoids in subtribe Centaureinae (Cass.) Dumort (tribe Cardueae, Asteraceae): distribution, (13)C NMR spectral data and biological properties. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 95:19-93. [PMID: 23948259 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Asteraceae Bercht. & J. Presl is one of the biggest and most economically important plant families. The taxonomy and phylogeny of Asteraceae is rather complex and according to the latest and most reliable taxonomic classification of Panero & Funk, based on the analysis of nine chloroplast regions, the family is divided into 12 subfamilies and 35 tribes. One of the largest tribes of Asteraceae is Cardueae Cass. with four subtribes (Carlininae, Echinopinae, Carduinae and Centaureinae) and more than 2500 species. Susanna & Garcia-Jacas have organized the genera of Centaureinae (about 800 species) into seven informal groups, which recent molecular studies have confirmed: 1. Basal genera; 2. Volutaria group; 3. Rhaponticum group; 4. Serratula group; 5. Carthamus group; 6. Crocodylium group; 7. Centaurea group. This review summarizes reports on sesquiterpenoids from the Centaureinae subtribe of the Asteraceae family, as well as the (13)C NMR spectral data described in the literature. It further reviews studies concerning the biological activities of these metabolites. For this work, literature data on sesquiterpenes from the Centaureinae subtribe were retrieved with the help of the SciFinder database and other similar data banks. All entries from 1958 until the end of 2011 were considered. This review is addressed to scientists working in the metabolomics field such as chemists, botanists, etc., the spectroscopic data reported make this work a good tool for structural elucidation, the biological section gives useful information to those who wish to study the structure activity relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Bruno
- STEBICEF, Section of Chemistry, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Parco d'Orleans II, 90128 Palermo, Italy.
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Milošević Ifantis T, Solujić S, Pavlović-Muratspahić D, Skaltsa H. Secondary metabolites from the aerial parts of Centaurea pannonica (Heuff.) Simonk. from Serbia and their chemotaxonomic importance. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 94:159-170. [PMID: 23827325 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 05/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The non polar extract of Centaurea pannonica (Heuff.) Simonk., growing wild in Serbia, was studied and twenty-five compounds including 14 sesquiterpene lactones, 7 flavonoids, 3 lignans and 1 phenylpropanoid glycoside were isolated. All compounds were isolated for the first time from this species. Among them, one germacranolide 2α-hydroxy, 8-dehydroxy 15-O-methacrylate salonitenolide (1) and two guaianolides 2α,8α-dihydroxy-dehydrocostus lactone (2) and pannonin (3) are new natural compounds. The structures of the compounds were established on the basis of spectroscopic analyses (UV, IR, HREIMS and 1D & 2D NMR). The chemical profile of C. pannonica, which belongs to the "Centaurea jacea" group, was compared to previously studied taxa of the same group and used to assess the phylogenetic relationships in the group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Milošević Ifantis
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Chemistry of Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece
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Łozowicka B, Kaczyński P. Synthesis and antifeedant activity of novel alpha-asarone derivatives against stored-product pests. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2013; 69:964-974. [PMID: 23355356 DOI: 10.1002/ps.3461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Revised: 10/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alpha-asarone (2,4,5-trimethoxypropenylbenzene) derivatives represent a new series of compounds that possess good antifeedant activity against different stored-product pests. RESULTS A total of 23 novel alpha-asarone derivatives were synthesised and identified by (1) H NMR, (13) C NMR and IR, and their feeding deterrent activities were tested against Sitophilus granarius L., Trogoderma granarium Ev. and Tribolium confusum Duv. Ten compounds showed strong antifeedant activities. CONCLUSION Some of the title compounds displayed very good and broad-spectrum activities against adult and larval Coleoptera. The results indicate that the presence of a double bond in the side chain and three methoxy groups is important for antifeedant activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bożena Łozowicka
- Plant Protection Institute - National Research Institute, Regional Experimental Station, Białystok, Poland
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Gnilka R, Wawrzeńczyk C. Synthesis of Sabina δ-Lactones and Sabina δ-Lactams from (+)-Sabinene. Aust J Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1071/ch13306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Two sabina δ-lactones (3 and 4) were obtained in a two-step synthesis from (+)-sabinene (1). The oxidation of (+)-sabinene (1) with potassium permanganate and sodium periodate to (–)-sabina ketone (2) was the first step. In the second step, the ketone obtained was subjected to chemical and microbial Baeyer–Villiger oxidation. Chemical Baeyer–Villiger oxidation of this ketone afforded two δ-lactones 3 and 4 whereas microbial Baeyer–Villiger oxidation afforded only ‘abnormal’ δ-lactone 4. (–)-Sabina ketone was also the starting material for the synthesis of new δ-lactams (7 and 8). They were obtained by Beckmann rearrangement of sabina ketone oximes 5a and 5b. An attempt to separate (–)-sabina ketone oximes 5a and 5b is also presented.
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Grudniewska A, Dancewicz K, Białońska A, Ciunik Z, Gabryś B, Wawrzeńczyk C. Synthesis of piperitone-derived halogenated lactones and their effect on aphid probing, feeding, and settling behavior. RSC Adv 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c1ra00270h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Fang Z, Jun DY, Kim YH, Min BS, Kim AK, Woo MH. Cytotoxic Constituents from the Leaves of Zanthoxylum schinifolium. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2010. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2010.31.04.1081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Zhang XP, Zhang J, Dong M, Zhang ML, Huo CH, Shi QW, Gu YC. Chemical Constituents of Plants from the GenusRhaponticum. Chem Biodivers 2010; 7:594-609. [DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200800275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Staneva JD, Todorova MN, Evstatieva LN. Sesquiterpene lactones as chemotaxonomic markers in genus Anthemis. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2008; 69:607-18. [PMID: 17850834 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Revised: 07/25/2007] [Accepted: 07/25/2007] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Sesquiterpene lactones isolated from the genus Anthemis are used as chemotaxonomic markers. The obtained results support with some exceptions the botanical classification in Flora Europaea. Discrepancy between the lactone profile, cluster analysis and classification of A. melampodina, A. macedonica and A. austriaca in the genus Anthemis is discussed. The lactone composition of the undescribed as an European species A. plutonia correlates well with the guaianolide containing group of sect. Hiorthia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordanka D Staneva
- Institute of Organic Chemistry with Centre of Phytochemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria.
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Tabanca N, Demirci F, Demirci B, Wedge DE, Baser KHC. Composition, enantiomeric distribution, and antimicrobial activity of Tanacetum argenteum subsp. flabellifolium essential oil. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007; 45:714-9. [PMID: 17884324 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2007] [Revised: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 08/08/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Tanacetum argenteum (Lam.) Willd. subsp. flabellifolium (Boiss. & Heldr.) Grierson of Asteraceae is an endemic species in Turkey. Hydrodistillation of aerial parts using a Clevenger apparatus yielded an essential oil, which was subsequently analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). alpha-Pinene (29%), (E)-sesquilavandulol (16%), and camphor (14%) were found as main constituents. Enantiomeric distribution of the monoterpenes alpha-pinene and camphor was determined on a fused silica Lipodex E capillary column using a multidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (MDGC-MS) system, (-)-alpha-pinene (86%), (+)-alpha-pinene (14%), and (-)-camphor (100%) enantiomeric distributions were found in the oil. Furthermore, antimicrobial activity of the oil was carried out using a micro-dilution assay against human pathogenic bacteria and the yeast Candida albicans resulting in moderate inhibitory concentrations (MIC=125 microg/mL).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurhayat Tabanca
- USDA-ARS-NPURU, The University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA.
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