Fibronectin regulates anoikis resistance via cell aggregate formation

Survival mechanisms of circulating tumor cells and their implications for cancer treatment

Metastasis remains the principal trigger for relapse and mortality across diverse cancer types. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs), which originate from the primary tumor or its metastatic sites, traverse the vascular system, serving as precursors in cancer recurrence and metastasis. Nevertheless, before CTCs can establish themselves in the distant parenchyma, they must overcome significant challenges present within the circulatory system, including hydrodynamic shear stress (HSS), oxidative damage, anoikis, and immune surveillance. Recently, there has been a growing body of compelling evidence suggesting that a specific subset of CTCs can persist within the bloodstream, but the precise mechanisms of their survival remain largely elusive. This review aims to present an outline of the survival challenges encountered by CTCs and to summarize the recent advancements in understanding the underlying survival mechanisms, suggesting their implications for cancer treatment.

Empagliflozin drives ferroptosis in anoikis-resistant cells by activating miR-128-3p dependent pathway and inhibiting CD98hc in breast cancer

A tumour suppressor miRNA, miR-128-3p, is widely involved in various biological processes and has been found to get downregulated in breast cancer patients. We previously published that ectopically expressed miR-128-3p suppressed migration, invasion, cell cycle arrest, and breast cancer stem cells. In the present study, we explored the role of Empagliflozin (EMPA) as a miR-128-3p functionality-mimicking drug in inducing ferroptosis by inhibiting CD98hc. Given that CD98hc is one of the proteins critical in triggering ferroptosis, we confirmed that miR-128-3p and EMPA inhibited SP1, leading to inhibition of CD98hc expression. Further, transfection with siCD98hc, miR-128-3p mimics, and inhibitors was performed to assess their involvement in the ferroptosis of anoikis-resistant cells. We proved that anoikis-resistant cells possess high ROS and iron levels. Further, miR-128-3p and EMPA treatments induced ferroptosis by inhibiting GSH and enzymatic activity of GPX4 and also induced lipid peroxidation. Moreover, EMPA suppressed bioluminescence of 4T1-Red-FLuc induced thoracic cavity, peritoneal tumour burden and lung nodules in an in-vivo metastatic model of breast cancer. Collectively, we revealed that EMPA sensitized the ECM detached cells to ferroptosis by synergically activating miR-128-3p and lowering the levels of SP1 and CD98hc, making it a potential adjunct drug for breast cancer chemotherapy.

Targeting anoikis resistance as a strategy for cancer therapy

Anoikis, known as matrix detachment-induced apoptosis or detachment-induced cell death, is crucial for tissue development and homeostasis. Cancer cells develop means to evade anoikis, e.g. anoikis resistance, thereby allowing for cells to survive under anchorage-independent conditions. Uncovering the mechanisms of anoikis resistance will provide details about cancer metastasis, and potential strategies against cancer cell dissemination and metastasis. Here, we summarize the principal elements and core molecular mechanisms of anoikis and anoikis resistance. We discuss the latest progress of how anoikis and anoikis resistance are regulated in cancers. Furthermore, we summarize emerging data on selective compounds and nanomedicines, explaining how inhibiting anoikis resistance can serve as a meaningful treatment modality against cancers. Finally, we discuss the key limitations of this therapeutic paradigm and possible strategies to overcome them. In this review, we suggest that pharmacological modulation of anoikis and anoikis resistance by bioactive compounds could surmount anoikis resistance, highlighting a promising therapeutic regimen that could be used to overcome anoikis resistance in cancers.

Engineered in vivo and in vitro tumor model recapitulates vasculogenic mimicry signatures in melanoma

Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) describes a process by which tumor cells formed a novel microcirculation pattern in an endothelial cell-free manner. Clinically, VM is associated with aggressive phenotype and poor patient survival. However, the current models for investigating VM include 2D monolayer cultures, Matrigel-based cultures, and animal models, each of which has limitations. Matrigel-based models often exhibit batch-to-batch variations, while in vivo tumor models currently produce insufficient amounts of VM. There is currently no suitable tumor model to discover new therapeutic targets against VM. Herein, we establish an extracellular matrix (ECM)-based engineered tumor model in vivo and in vitro. In this study, we demonstrate that matrix proteins enhanced the VM formation in the engineered xenograft model. Furthermore, we also investigated the role of collagen/fibronectin (FN) in melanoma progression and VM formation. Compared with cells cultured on TCPS plates, the B16F10 cells cultured on collagen/FN coated plates showed increased proliferation and stemness, and significantly enhanced invasion and formation of VM networks. Molecular mechanism analysis showed that Integrin/VE-cadherin/EphA2/PI3K/MMP-2 signaling pathways are responsible for VM formation. Our results indicate that collagen/FN matrix plays an important role in VM formation in melanoma, suggesting that ECM protein is a potential therapeutic target for anti-VM therapy for melanoma.

An anoikis-related gene signature predicts prognosis, drug sensitivity, and immune microenvironment in cholangiocarcinoma

Background

Cholangiocarcinoma is a malignant invasive biliary tract carcinoma with a poor prognosis. Anoikis-related genes are prognostic features of a variety of cancers. However, the value of prognostication and therapeutic effect of anoikis-related genes in cholangiocarcinoma have not been reported. The aim of this research was developing an ARGs signature associated with cholangiocarcinoma patients.

Methods

We introduced transcriptome data to discover genes that were differentially expressed in cholangiocarcinoma. Subsequently, WGCNA was utilized to screen critical module genes in reference to anoikis. The univariate Cox, Lasso regression and Kaplan-Meier survival were executed to build a prognostic signature. We further performed gene functional enrichment, immune microenvironment and immunotherapy analysis between two risk subgroups. Finally, the pRRophetic algorithm was applied to compare the half inhibitory concentration value of several drugs.

Results

A grand total of 1844 genes with differential expression related to the cholangiocarcinoma patients were identified. Furthermore, we obtained 2678 key module genes related to anoikis. Then, a prognostic signature was developed using the 6 prognostic genes (FXYD2, PCBD1, C1RL, GMNN, LAMA4 and HACL1). Independent prognostic analysis showed that risk score and alcohol could function as separate prognostic variables. We found cetain distinction in the immune microenvironment between the two risk subgroups. Moreover, immunotherapy evaluation showed that the anoikis-related gene signature could be applied as a therapy predictor. Finally, Chemotherapeutic drug sensitivity results showed that the low-risk group responded better to bosutinib, gefitinib, gemcitabine, and paclitaxel, while the high-risk group responded better to axitinib, cisplatin, and imatinib.

Conclusion

The prognostic signature comprised of FXYD2, PCBD1, C1RL, GMNN, LAMA4 and HACL1 based on anoikis-related genes was established, which provided theoretical basis and reference value for the research and treatment of cholangiocarcinoma.

ZEB family is a prognostic biomarker and correlates with anoikis and immune infiltration in kidney renal clear cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Zinc finger E-box binding homEeobox 1 (ZEB1) and ZEB2 are two anoikis-related transcription factors. The mRNA expressions of these two genes are significantly increased in kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC), which are associated with poor survival. Meanwhile, the mechanisms and clinical significance of ZEB1 and ZEB2 upregulation in KIRC remain unknown.

METHODS

Through the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, expression profiles, prognostic value and receiver operating characteristic curves (ROCs) of ZEB1 and ZEB2 were evaluated. The correlations of ZEB1 and ZEB2 with anoikis were further assessed in TCGA-KIRC database. Next, miRTarBase, miRDB, and TargetScan were used to predict microRNAs targeting ZEB1 and ZEB2, and TCGA-KIRC database was utilized to discern differences in microRNAs and establish the association between microRNAs and ZEBs. TCGA, TIMER, TISIDB, and TISCH were used to analyze tumor immune infiltration.

RESULTS

It was found that ZEB1 and ZEB2 expression were related with histologic grade in KIRC patient. Kaplan-Meier survival analyses showed that KIRC patients with low ZEB1 or ZEB2 levels had a significantly lower survival rate. Meanwhile, ZEB1 and ZEB2 are closely related to anoikis and are regulated by microRNAs. We constructed a risk model using univariate Cox and LASSO regression analyses to identify two microRNAs (hsa-miR-130b-3p and hsa-miR-138-5p). Furthermore, ZEB1 and ZEB2 regulate immune cell invasion in KIRC tumor microenvironments.

CONCLUSIONS

Anoikis, cytotoxic immune cell infiltration, and patient survival outcomes were correlated with ZEB1 and ZEB2 mRNA upregulation in KIRC. ZEB1 and ZEB2 are regulated by microRNAs.

Anoikis and SPP1 in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: integrating bioinformatics, cell, and animal studies to explore prognostic biomarkers and PI3K/AKT signaling regulation

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to explore the relevance of anoikis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and identify associated biomarkers and signaling pathways.

METHOD

Unsupervised consensus cluster analysis was employed to categorize IPF patients into subtypes. We utilized Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) and Protein-Protein Interaction network construction to identify anoikis-related modules and key genes. A prognostic signature was developed using Lasso and multivariate Cox regression analysis. Single-cell sequencing assessed hub gene expression in various cell types, and both cell and animal experiments confirmed IPF-related pathways.

RESULTS

We identified two distinct anoikis-associated subtypes with differing prognoses. WGCNA revealed essential hub genes, with SPP1 being prominent in the anoikis-related signature. The anoikis-related signature is effective in determining the prognosis of patients with IPF. Single-cell sequencing highlighted significant differences in SPP1 expression, notably elevated in fibroblasts derived from IPF patients. In vivo and in vitro experiments demonstrated that SPP1 enhances fibrosis in mouse lung fibroblasts by regulating p27 through the PI3K/Akt pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our research demonstrates a robust prognostic signature associated with anoikis and highlights SPP1 as a pivotal regulator of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in pulmonary fibrosis.

Deciphering anoikis resistance and identifying prognostic biomarkers in clear cell renal cell carcinoma epithelial cells

This study tackles the persistent prognostic and management challenges of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), despite advancements in multimodal therapies. Focusing on anoikis, a critical form of programmed cell death in tumor progression and metastasis, we investigated its resistance in cancer evolution. Using single-cell RNA sequencing from seven ccRCC patients, we assessed the impact of anoikis-related genes (ARGs) and identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in Anoikis-related epithelial subclusters (ARESs). Additionally, six ccRCC RNA microarray datasets from the GEO database were analyzed for robust DEGs. A novel risk prognostic model was developed through LASSO and multivariate Cox regression, validated using BEST, ULCAN, and RT-PCR. The study included functional enrichment, immune infiltration analysis in the tumor microenvironment (TME), and drug sensitivity assessments, leading to a predictive nomogram integrating clinical parameters. Results highlighted dynamic ARG expression patterns and enhanced intercellular interactions in ARESs, with significant KEGG pathway enrichment in MYC + Epithelial subclusters indicating enhanced anoikis resistance. Additionally, all ARESs were identified in the spatial context, and their locational relationships were explored. Three key prognostic genes-TIMP1, PECAM1, and CDKN1A-were identified, with the high-risk group showing greater immune infiltration and anoikis resistance, linked to poorer prognosis. This study offers a novel ccRCC risk signature, providing innovative approaches for patient management, prognosis, and personalized treatment.

Development of a biomarker signature associated with anoikis to predict prognosis and immunotherapy response in melanoma

Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is malignant cancer known for its high aggressiveness and unfavorable prognosis, particularly in advanced tumors. Anoikis is a specific pattern of programmed cell death associated with tumor regeneration, migration, and metastasis. Nevertheless, limited research has been conducted to investigate the function of anoikis in SKCM. Anoikis-related genes (ARGs) were extracted from Genecards to identify SKCM subtypes and to explore the immune microenvironment between the different subtypes. Prognostic models of SKCM were developed by LASSO COX regression analysis. Subsequently, the predictive value of risk scores in SKCM and the association with immunotherapy were further explored. Finally, the expression of 6 ARGs involved in the model construction was detected by immunohistochemistry and PCR. This study identified 20 ARGs significantly associated with SKCM prognosis and performed disease subtype analysis of samples based on these genes, different subtypes exhibited significantly different clinical features and tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) landscapes. The risk score prognostic model was generated by further screening and identification of the six ARGs. The model exhibited a high degree of sensitivity and specificity to predict the prognosis of individuals with SKCM. These high- and low-risk populations showed different immune statuses and drug sensitivity. Further immunohistochemical and PCR experiments identified significant differential expression of the six ARGs in tumor and normal samples. Anoikis-based features may serve as novel prognostic biomarkers for SKCM and may provide important new insights for survival prediction and individualized treatment development.

Integrated single-cell and bulk RNA-Seq analysis enhances prognostic accuracy of PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy response in lung adenocarcinoma through necroptotic anoikis gene signatures

In addition to presenting significant diagnostic and treatment challenges, lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most common form of lung cancer. Using scRNA-Seq and bulk RNA-Seq data, we identify three genes referred to as HMR, FAM83A, and KRT6A these genes are related to necroptotic anoikis-related gene expression. Initial validation, conducted on the GSE50081 dataset, demonstrated the model's ability to categorize LUAD patients into high-risk and low-risk groups with significant survival differences. This model was further applied to predict responses to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade therapies, utilizing the IMvigor210 and GSE78220 cohorts, and showed strong correlation with patient outcomes, highlighting its potential in personalized immunotherapy. Further, LUAD cell lines were analyzed using quantitative PCR (qPCR) and Western blot analysis to confirm their expression levels, further corroborating the model's relevance in LUAD pathophysiology. The mutation landscape of these genes was also explored, revealing their broad implication in various cancer types through a pan-cancer analysis. The study also delved into molecular subclustering, revealing distinct expression profiles and associations with different survival outcomes, emphasizing the model's utility in precision oncology. Moreover, the diversity of immune cell infiltration, analyzed in relation to the necroptotic anoikis signature, suggested significant implications for immune evasion mechanisms in LUAD. While the findings present a promising stride towards personalized LUAD treatment, especially in immunotherapy, limitations such as the retrospective nature of the datasets and the need for larger sample sizes are acknowledged. Prospective clinical trials and further experimental research are essential to validate these findings and enhance the clinical applicability of our prognostic model.

Anoikis patterns via machine learning strategy and experimental verification exhibit distinct prognostic and immune landscapes in melanoma

BACKGROUND

Anoikis is a cell death programmed to eliminate dysfunctional or damaged cells induced by detachment from the extracellular matrix. Utilizing an anoikis-based risk stratification is anticipated to understand melanoma's prognostic and immune landscapes comprehensively.

METHODS

Differential expression genes (DEGs) were analyzed between melanoma and normal skin tissues in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Genotype-Tissue Expression data sets. Next, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, support vector machine-recursive feature elimination algorithm, and univariate and multivariate Cox analyses on the 308 DEGs were performed to build the prognostic signature in the TCGA-melanoma data set. Finally, the signature was validated in GSE65904 and GSE22155 data sets. NOTCH3, PIK3R2, and SOD2 were validated in our clinical samples by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The prognostic model for melanoma patients was developed utilizing ten hub anoikis-related genes. The overall survival (OS) of patients in the high-risk subgroup, which was classified by the optimal cutoff value, was remarkably shorter in the TCGA-melanoma, GSE65904, and GSE22155 data sets. Low-risk patients exhibited low immune cell infiltration and high expression of immunophenoscores and immune checkpoints. They also demonstrated increased sensitivity to various drugs, including dasatinib and dabrafenib. NOTCH3, PIK3R2, and SOD2 were notably associated with OS by univariate Cox analysis in the GSE65904 data set. The clinical melanoma samples showed remarkably higher protein expressions of NOTCH3 (P = 0.003) and PIK3R2 (P = 0.009) than the para-melanoma samples, while the SOD2 protein expression remained unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we successfully established a prognostic anoikis-connected signature using machine learning. This model may aid in evaluating patient prognosis, clinical characteristics, and immune treatment modalities for melanoma.

The role of fibronectin in mediating cell migration

Fibronectin (FN) is a major extracellular matrix (ECM) protein involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including cell migration. These FN-mediated cell migration events are essential to processes such as wound repair, cancer metastasis, and vertebrate development. This review synthesizes mainly current literature to provide an overview of the mechanoregulatory role of FN-mediated cell migration. Background on FN structure and role in mechanotransduction is provided. Cell migration concepts are introduced, including the general cell migration mechanism and classification of cell migration types. Then, FN-mediated events that directly affect cell migration are explored. Finally, a focus on FN in tissue repair and cancer migration is presented, as these topics represent a large amount of current research.

Tumor budding to investigate local invasion, metastasis, and prognosis of head and neck carcinoma: A systematic review

The aim of this systematic review is to shed light on the role of tumor budding (TB) in the biology, behavior, and prognosis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). A search was run in PubMed, Scopus, and Embase databases following PRISMA guidelines. After full-text screening and application of inclusion/exclusion criteria, 36 articles were included. Several investigations support the prognostic role of TB, which might play a role in selecting rational treatment strategies. To achieve this goal, further research is needed for greater standardization in TB quantification. Although TB is not included as a negative prognostic factor in the current management guidelines, it might be reasonable to consider a closer follow-up for HNSCC cases with high histopathological evidence of TB.

Cross-talk between gastric cancer and hepatic stellate cells promotes invadopodia formation during liver metastasis

In gastric cancer (GC), the liver is a common organ for distant metastasis, and patients with gastric cancer with liver metastasis (GCLM) generally have poor prognosis. The mechanism of GCLM is unclear. Invadopodia are special membrane protrusions formed by tumor cells that can degrade the basement membrane and ECM. Herein, we investigated the role of invadopodia in GCLM. We found that the levels of invadopodia-associated proteins were significantly higher in liver metastasis than in the primary tumors of patients with GCLM. Furthermore, GC cells could activate hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) within the tumor microenvironment of liver metastases through the secretion of platelet-derived growth factor subunit B (PDGFB). Activated HSCs secreted hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which activated the MET proto-oncogene, MET receptor of GC cells, thereby promoting invadopodia formation through the PI3K/AKT pathway and subsequently enhancing the invasion and metastasis of GC cells. Therefore, cross-talk between GC cells and HSCs by PDGFB/platelet derived growth factor receptor beta (PDGFRβ) and the HGF/MET axis might represent potential therapeutic targets to treat GCLM.

β2-Adrenoceptor Activation Favor Acquisition of Tumorigenic Properties in Non-Tumorigenic MCF-10A Breast Epithelial Cells

Noradrenaline and adrenaline, and their cognate receptors, are currently accepted to participate in cancer progression. They may also participate in cancer initiation, although their role in this phase is much less explored. The aim of this work was to study the influence of adrenergic stimulation in several processes related to breast cancer carcinogenesis, using several adrenergic agonists in the MCF-10A non-tumorigenic breast cells. Activation of the β-adrenoceptors promoted an epithelial phenotype in MCF-10A cells, revealed by an increased expression of the epithelial marker E-cadherin and a decrease in the mesenchymal markers, N-cadherin and vimentin. MCF-10A cell motility and migration were also impaired after the β-adrenoceptors activation. Concomitant with this effect, β-adrenoceptors decrease cell protrusions (lamellipodia and filopodia) while increasing cell adhesion. Activation of the β-adrenoceptors also decreases MCF-10A cell proliferation. When the MCF-10A cells were cultured under low attachment conditions, activation the of β- (likely β2) or of α2-adrenoceptors had protective effects against cell death, suggesting a pro-survival role of these adrenoceptors. Overall, our results showed that, in breast cells, adrenoceptor activation (mainly through β-adrenoceptors) may be a risk factor in breast cancer by inducing some cancer hallmarks, providing a mechanistic explanation for the increase in breast cancer incidences that may be associated with conditions that cause massive adrenergic stimulation, such as stress.

Deciphering hepatocellular carcinoma pathogenesis and therapeutics: a study on anoikis, ceRNA regulatory network and traditional Chinese medicine

Introduction: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is responsible for approximately 90% of liver malignancies and is the third most common cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. However, the role of anoikis, a programmed cell death mechanism crucial for maintaining tissue equilibrium, is not yet fully understood in the context of HCC. Methods: Our study aimed to investigate the expression of 10 anoikis-related genes (ARGs) in HCC, including BIRC5, SFN, UBE2C, SPP1, E2F1, etc., and their significance in the disease. Results: Through Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses, we discovered that these ARGs are involved in important processes such as tissue homeostasis, ion transport, cell cycle regulation, and viral infection pathways. Furthermore, we found a significant correlation between the prognostic value of five ARGs and immune cell infiltrates. Analysis of clinical datasets revealed a strong association between BIRC5 expression and HCC pathological progression, including pathological stage, T stage, overall survival (OS), and race. By constructing a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network and using molecular docking, we identified ten bioactive compounds from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that could potentially modulate BIRC5. Subsequent in vitro experiments confirmed the influence of platycodin D, one of the identified compounds, on key elements within the ceRNA network. Discussion: In conclusion, our study presents a novel framework for an anoikis-centered prognostic model and an immune-involved ceRNA network in HCC, revealing potential regulatory targets. These insights contribute to our understanding of HCC pathology and may lead to improved therapeutic interventions.

Comprehensive analysis of anoikis-related genes in prognosis and immune infiltration of gastric cancer based on bulk and single-cell RNA sequencing data

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence suggests that anoikis resistance is a key process in cancer cell metastasis, making it an attractive therapeutic target. Therefore, anoikis may become a new treatment for gastric cancer.

METHODS

We used the univariate Cox regression method to screen gastric cancer-related anoikis genes, and a prognostic risk model was established. We analyzed differences between high- and low-risk groups in terms of tumor infiltrating immune cells, gene mutation signatures, and treatment of gastric cancer. Analysis of model associated genes at single-cell resolution was performed.

RESULTS

We filtered to 12 anoikis-related genes and built a prognostic risk model using seven of them, which performed well in multiple datasets. Patients with CCDC178 mutations had a worse prognosis. We also found that patients at low risk were more likely to benefit from chemotherapy and immunotherapy. ERBB2 was found to be highly expressed in epithelial cells and fibroblasts. Our analysis also indicated that gastric cancer samples with high infiltration of iCAFs had a worse prognosis.

CONCLUSION

Seven anoikis-related genes were selected to establish a risk model. The model can be used to predict the prognosis of patients and guide the drug treatment, which provides a new idea for the evaluation and treatment of gastric cancer patients.

The study of an anoikis-related signature to predict glioma prognosis and immune infiltration

BACKGROUND

Gliomas are the most common highly aggressive primary malignant brain tumors in adults with different biological behaviors and clinically heterogeneous features. About the extremely poor prognosis of gliomas, the search for potential therapeutic modalities and targets is crucial.

METHOD

We extracted the anoikis-related genes (ARG) from GeneCards and obtained differentially expressed genes in normal and glioma tissues from the GSE4290 dataset to obtain intersect differentially expressed ARG in gliomas by differential analysis. KEGG and GO analyses were used to evaluate the potential pathways and molecular processes of these genes. Based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) training cohort, we performed the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) regression and Cox regression to construct an ARG prognostic model and validated them in the TCGA testing cohort and the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA) validation cohort. Subsequently, we further explored the differences in clinical characteristics, tumor mutation burden (TMB), and the immune microenvironment in the high- and low-risk groups. Univariate and multifactorial regression analyses and nomogram construction were also performed. Moreover, we evaluated the expression levels of key genes via public databases, qPCR analysis and IHC staining, and further assessed the clinical prognostic value.

RESULTS

The regulatory model based on quantitative ARG prognostic models showed that patients in the high-risk group were associated with poorer survival prognosis, poorer clinical characteristics, and higher TMB levels. Moreover, the high-risk group had high levels of immune infiltration and upregulated immune checkpoint gene expression. The ARG prognostic model and the Nomogram showed good predictive performance. Expression and survival analysis of five prognostic ARG signatures (ETV4, HMOX1, MYC, NFE2L2, and UBE2C) showed that these genes have potential prognostic value.

CONCLUSION

Our constructed ARG prognostic risk model provides a potential therapeutic target and theoretical basis for predicting the prognosis of glioma patients and guiding individualized immunotherapy.

Cancer metastasis: Molecular mechanisms and clinical perspectives

Metastatic progression combined with non-responsiveness towards systemic therapy often shapes the course of disease for cancer patients and commonly determines its lethal outcome. The complex molecular events that promote metastasis are a combination of both, the acquired pro-metastatic properties of cancer cells and a metastasis-permissive or -supportive tumor micro-environment (TME). Yet, dissemination is a challenging process for cancer cells that requires a series of events to enable cancer cell survival and growth. Metastatic cancer cells have to initially detach themselves from primary tumors, overcome the challenges of their intravasal journey and colonize distant sites that are suited for their metastases. The implicated obstacles including anoikis and immune surveillance, can be overcome by intricate intra- and extracellular signaling pathways, which we will summarize and discuss in this review. Further, emerging modulators of metastasis, like the immune-microenvironment, microbiome, sublethal cell death engagement, or the nervous system will be integrated into the existing working model of metastasis.

Anoikis-associated signatures predict prognosis and immune response in bladder cancer

Objective: Anoikis is a type of programmed cell death that occurs in normal epithelial and endothelial cells. However, the specific role of anoikis regulators (ANRs) in bladder cancer (BLCA) remains unknown. Therefore, the objective of this study was to find subgroups that could identify different levels of anoikis resistance in BLCA and construct an anoikis scoring system to assess prognosis. Method: By obtaining ANRs from public datasets, subgroups of BLCA with varying degrees of anoikis resistance were identified, and risk was determined. Result: ANRs affects the occurrence and prognosis of BLCA and can be predicted by establishing risk models. Conclusion: The anoikis scoring system and anoikis-associated risk profiles may help develop more effective and personalized treatment strategies for BLCA patients.

Regulation of anoikis by extrinsic death receptor pathways

Metastatic cancer cells can develop anoikis resistance in the absence of substrate attachment and survive to fight tumors. Anoikis is mediated by endogenous mitochondria-dependent and exogenous death receptor pathways, and studies have shown that caspase-8-dependent external pathways appear to be more important than the activity of the intrinsic pathways. This paper reviews the regulation of anoikis by external pathways mediated by death receptors. Different death receptors bind to different ligands to activate downstream caspases. The possible mechanisms of Fas-associated death domain (FADD) recruitment by Fas and TNF receptor 1 associated-death domain (TRADD) recruitment by tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), and DR4- and DR5-associated FADD to induce downstream caspase activation and regulate anoikis were reviewed. This review highlights the possible mechanism of the death receptor pathway mediation of anoikis and provides new insights and research directions for studying tumor metastasis mechanisms. Video Abstract.

New advances in circulating tumor cell‑mediated metastasis of breast cancer (Review)

Breast cancer stands as the most prevalent form of cancer affecting women, with metastasis serving as a leading cause of mortality among patients with breast cancer. Gaining a comprehensive understanding of the metastatic mechanism in breast cancer is essential for early detection and precision treatment of the disease. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) play a vital role in this context, representing cancer cells that detach from tumor tissues and enter the bloodstream of cancer patients. These cells travel in the blood circulation as single cells or clusters. Recent research has shed light on the enhanced metastatic potential of CTC clusters compared to single CTCs, despite their limited occurrence. The aim of the present review was to explore recent findings on CTCs with a particular focus on the clustering phenomenon of CTCs observed in breast cancer. Additionally, the present review delved into the comparison between single CTCs and CTC clusters regarding their implications for the treatment and prognosis of patients diagnosed with metastatic breast cancer. By examining the role and mechanisms of CTCs in breast cancer metastasis, the present review provided an improved understanding of CTCs and their significance in early detection of breast cancer metastasis through peripheral blood analysis. Moreover, it contributed to the comprehension of cancer prognosis and prediction by highlighting the implications of CTCs in these aspects. Ultimately, the present study seeks to advance knowledge in the field and pave the way for improved approaches to breast cancer management.

The anoikis-related gene signature predicts survival accurately in colon adenocarcinoma

Colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) is a serious public health problem, the third most common cancer and the second most deadly cancer in the world. About 9.4% of cancer-related deaths in 2020 were due to COAD. Anoikis is a specialized form of programmed cell death that plays an important role in tumor invasion and metastasis. The presence of anti-anoikis factors is associated with tumor aggressiveness and drug resistance. Various bioinformatic methods, such as differential expression analysis, and functional annotation analysis, machine learning, were used in this study. RNA-sequencing and clinical data from COAD patients were obtained from the Gene expression omnibus (GEO) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases. Construction of a prognostic nomogram for predicting overall survival (OS) using multivariate analysis and Lasso-Cox regression. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was our method of validating the expression of seven genes that are linked to anoikis in COAD. We identified seven anoikis-related genes as predictors of COAD survival and prognosis, and confirmed their accuracy in predicting colon adenocarcinoma prognosis by KM survival curves and ROC curves. A seven-gene risk score consisting of NAT1, CDC25C, ATP2A3, MMP3, EEF1A2, PBK, and TIMP1 showed strong prognostic value. Meanwhile, we made a nomogram to predict the survival rate of COAD patients. The immune infiltration assay showed T cells. CD4 memory. Rest and macrophages. M0 has a higher proportion in COAD, and 11 genes related to tumor immunity are important. GDSC2-based drug susceptibility analysis showed that 6 out of 198 drugs were significant in COAD. Anoikis-related genes have potential value in predicting the prognosis of COAD and provide clues for developing new therapeutic strategies for COAD. Immune infiltration and drug susceptibility results provide important clues for finding new personalized treatment options for COAD. These findings also suggest possible mechanisms that may affect prognosis. These results are the starting point for planning individualized treatment and managing patient outcomes.

Zwitterionic microgel preservation platform for circulating tumor cells in whole blood specimen

The immediate processing of whole blood specimen is required in circulating tumor cell-based liquid biopsy. Reliable blood specimen stabilization towards preserving circulating tumor cells can enable more extensive geographic sharing for precise rare-cell technology, but remains challenging due to the fragility and rarity of circulating tumor cells. Herein, we establish a zwitterionic magnetic microgel platform to stabilize whole blood specimen for long-term hypothermic preservation of model circulating tumor cells. We show in a cohort study of 20 cancer patients that blood samples can be preserved for up to 7 days without compromising circulating tumor cell viability and RNA integrity, thereby doubling the viable preservation duration. We demonstrate that the 7-day microgel-preserved blood specimen is able to reliably detect cancer-specific transcripts, similar to fresh blood specimens, while there are up/down expression regulation of 1243 genes in model circulating tumor cells that are preserved by commercial protectant. Mechanistically, we find that the zwitterionic microgel assembly counters the cold-induced excessive reactive oxygen species and platelet activation, as well as extracellular matrix loss-induced cell anoikis, to prevent circulating tumor cell loss in the whole blood sample. The present work could prove useful for the development of blood-based noninvasive diagnostics.

Development of anoikis-related long non-coding RNA signature associated with prognosis and immune landscape in cutaneous melanoma patients

BACKGROUND

Anoikis is involved in many critical biological processes in tumors; however, function in CM is still unknown. In this study, the relevance between Anoikis-related lncRNAs (ARLs) and the clinicopathological characteristics of patients with CM was comprehensively assessed.

METHODS

Through analysis of TCGA dataset, ARLs were identified by using TCGA dataset. Based on the ARLs, a risk model was established to anticipate the prognosis of patients with CM, besides, the prediction accuracy of the model was evaluated. The immune infiltration landscape of patients with CM was assessed comprehensively, and the correlation between ARLs and immunity was elucidated. Immunotherapy and drug sensitivity analyses were applied to analyze the treatment response in patients with CM with diverse risk scores. Different subgroups were distinguished among the patients using consensus cluster analysis.

RESULTS

A risk model based on six ARLs was set up to obtain an accurate prediction of the prognosis of patients with CM. There were distinctions in the immune landscape among CM patients with diverse risk scores and subgroups. Six prognosis-related ARLs were highly correlated with the number of immune cells. Patients with CM with different risk scores have various sensitivities to immunotherapy and antitumor drug treatments.

CONCLUSION

Our newly risk model associated with ARLs has considerable prognostic value for patients with CM. Not only has the risk model high prediction accuracy but it also indicates the immune status of CM patients, which will provide a new direction for the individualized therapy of patients with CM.

Identification and validation of a novel anoikis-related signature for predicting prognosis and immune landscape in ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma (OSC) is the most prevalent histological subtype of ovarian cancer (OV) and presents a serious threat to women's health. Anoikis is an essential component of metastasis, and tumor cells can get beyond it to become viable. The impact of anoikis on OSC, however, has only been the topic of a few studies.

METHODS

The mRNA sequencing and clinical information of OSC came from The Cancer Genome Atlas Target Genotype-Tissue Expression (TCGA TARGET GTEx) dataset. Anoikis-related genes (ARGs) were collected by Harmonizome and GeneCards websites. Centered on these ARGs, we used unsupervised consensus clustering to explore potential tumor typing and filtered hub ARGs to create a model of predictive signature for OSC patients. Furthermore, we presented clinical specialists with a novel nomogram based on ARGs, revealing the underlying clinical relevance of this signature. Finally, we explored the immune microenvironment among various risk groups.

RESULTS

We identified 24 ARGs associated with the prognosis of OSC and classified OSC patients into three subtypes, and the subtype with the best prognosis was more enriched in immune-related pathways. Seven ARGs (ARHGEF7, NOTCH4, CASP2, SKP2, PAK4, LCK, CCDC80) were chosen to establish a risk model and a nomogram that can provide practical clinical decision support. Risk scores were found to be an independent and significant prognostic factor in OSC patients. The CIBERSORTx result revealed an inflammatory microenvironment is different for risk groups, and the proportion of immune infiltrates of Macrophages M1 is negatively correlated with risk score (rs = -0.21, P < 0.05). Ultimately, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was utilized to validate the expression of the seven pivotal ARGs.

CONCLUSION

In this study, based on seven ARGs, a risk model and nomogram established can be used for risk stratification and prediction of survival outcomes in patients with OSC, providing a reliable reference for individualized therapy of OSC patients.

Spatially Resolved Proteomic and Transcriptomic Profiling of Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase-Rearranged Pulmonary Adenocarcinomas Reveals Key Players in Inter- and Intratumoral Heterogeneity

Pulmonary adenocarcinomas (pADCs) with an ALK rearrangement are a rare cancer subtype, necessitating comprehensive molecular investigations to unravel their heterogeneity and improve therapeutic strategies. In this pilot study, we employed spatial transcriptomic (NanoString GeoMx) and proteomic profiling to investigate seven treatment-naïve pADCs with an ALK rearrangement. On each FFPE tumor slide, 12 smaller and 2-6 larger histopathologically annotated regions were selected for transcriptomic and proteomic analysis, respectively. The correlation between proteomics and transcriptomics was modest (average Pearson's r = 0.43 at the gene level). Intertumoral heterogeneity was more pronounced than intratumoral heterogeneity, and normal adjacent tissue exhibited distinct molecular characteristics. We identified potential markers and dysregulated pathways associated with tumors, with a varying extent of immune infiltration, as well as with mucin and stroma content. Notably, some markers appeared to be specific to the ALK-driven subset of pADCs. Our data showed that within tumors, elements of the extracellular matrix, including FN1, exhibited substantial variability. Additionally, we mapped the co-localization patterns of tumor microenvironment elements. This study represents the first spatially resolved profiling of ALK-driven pADCs at both the gene and protein expression levels. Our findings may contribute to a better understanding of this cancer type prior to treatment with ALK inhibitors.

EPs® 7630 Stimulates Tissue Repair Mechanisms and Modifies Tight Junction Protein Expression in Human Airway Epithelial Cells

Airway epithelium repair after infection consists of wound repair, re-synthesis of the extracellular matrix (ECM), and tight junction proteins. In humans, EPs^® 7630 obtained from Pelargonium sidoides roots reduces the severity and duration of acute respiratory tract infections. The effect of EPs^® 7630 on tissue repair of rhinovirus-16 (RV-16) infected and control human airway epithelial cells was assessed for: (i) epithelial cell proliferation by manual cell counts, (ii) epithelial wound repair by "scratch assay", (iii) ECM composition by Western-blotting and cell-based ELISA, and (iv) epithelial tight junction proteins by Western-blotting. EPs^® 7630 stimulated cell proliferation through cAMP, CREB, and p38 MAPK. EPs^® 7630 significantly improved wound repair. Pro-inflammatory collagen type-I expression was reduced by EPs^® 7630, while fibronectin was increased. Virus-binding tight junction proteins desmoglein2, desmocollin2, ZO-1, claudin1, and claudin4 were downregulated by EPs^® 7630. The RV16-induced shift of the ECM towards the pro-inflammatory type was prevented by EPs^® 7630. Most of the effects of EPs^® 7630 on tissue repair and regeneration were sensitive to inhibition of cAMP-induced signaling. The data suggest that EPs^® 7630-dependent modification of epithelial cell metabolism and function might underlie the faster recovery time from viral infections, as reported by others in clinical studies.

Inhibition of protein translation under matrix-deprivation stress in breast cancer cells

Matrix-deprivation stress leads to cell-death by anoikis, whereas overcoming anoikis is critical for cancer metastasis. Work from our lab and others has identified a crucial role for the cellular energy sensor AMPK in anoikis-resistance, highlighting a key role for metabolic reprogramming in stress survival. Protein synthesis is a major energy-consuming process that is tightly regulated under stress. Although an increase in protein synthesis in AMPK-depleted experimentally-transformed MEFs has been associated with anoikis, the status and regulation of protein translation in epithelial-origin cancer cells facing matrix-detachment remains largely unknown. Our study shows that protein translation is mechanistically abrogated at both initiation and elongation stages by the activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway and inactivation of elongation factor eEF2, respectively. Additionally, we show inhibition of the mTORC1 pathway known for regulation of canonical protein synthesis. We further functionally assay this inhibition using SUnSET assay, which demonstrates repression of global protein synthesis in MDA-MB-231 and MCF7 breast cancer cells when subjected to matrix-deprivation. In order to gauge the translational status of matrix-deprived cancer cells, we undertook polysome profiling. Our data revealed reduced but continuous mRNA translation under matrix-deprivation stress. An integrated analysis of transcriptomic and proteomic data further identifies novel targets that may aid cellular adaptations to matrix-deprivation stress and can be explored for therapeutic intervention.

Identification of A novel anoikis-related genes-based signature for non-small cell lung cancer

The prognostic value of anoikis in NSCLC and its mechanism in tumorigenesis and progress have not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to reveal the correlation between anoikis-related genes (ARGs) and tumor prognosis, to reveal molecular and immune features, and to evaluate the anticancer drug sensitivity and the efficacy of immunotherapy of NSCLC. ARGs were selected from both the GeneCards and Harmonizome databases and then were intersected with the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database by differential expression analysis, followed by functional analysis of the target ARGs. An ARGs-based prognostic signature was constructed using LASSO (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) Cox regression analysis; Kaplan-Meier analysis, univariant and multivariant Cox analysis were used to validate the value of this model in NSCLC prognosis. Differential analyses on molecular and immune landscapes were applied in the model. Anticancer drug sensitivity and efficacy in immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) therapy were analyzed. A total of 509 ARGs and 168 differentially expressed ARGs in NSCLC were generated. Functional analysis revealed enrichment in extracolonic apoptotic signaling pathway, collagen-containing ECM, and integrin binding, and indicated an association with the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Subsequently, a 14-genes signature was generated. The high-risk group had a worse prognosis, with higherM0 and M2 macrophage infiltration, and fewer CD8 T-cells and T follicular helper (TFH) cells. The high-risk group had higher expression of immune checkpoint genes, HLA-I genes, and higher TIDE scores than the low-risk group, leading to less benefit of ICI therapy. Additionally, an Immunohistochemical staining comparison revealed that FADD was highly expressed in tumor tissue, compared to normal tissue, consistent with the previous results.

Metastatic Dissemination: Role of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles and Their Use as Clinical Biomarkers

Cancer is a major cause of mortality in humans; often, rather than the primary tumor, it is the presence of metastases that are the cause of death. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small structures released by both normal and cancer cells; regarding the latter, they have been demonstrated to modulate almost all cancer-related processes, such as invasion, angiogenesis induction, drug resistance, and immune evasion. In the last years, it has become clear how EVs are widely involved in metastatic dissemination as well as in pre-metastatic niche (PMN) formation. Indeed, in order to achieve a successful metastatic process, i.e., penetration by cancer cells into distant tissues, the shaping of a favorable environment into those distant tissue, i.e., PMN formation, is mandatory. This process consists of an alteration that takes place in a distant organ and paves the way for the engraftment and growth of circulating tumor cells derived from the tumor primary site. This review focuses on the role of EVs in pre-metastatic niche formation and metastatic dissemination, also reporting the last studies suggesting the EVs role as biomarkers of metastatic diseases, possibly in a liquid biopsy approach.

The pathological significance and potential mechanism of ARHGEF6 in lung adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidences suggest that ARHGEF6 is involved in cancers but the exact significance and underlying mechanism are unclear. This study aimed to elucidate the pathological significance and potential mechanism of ARHGEF6 in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD).

METHODS

Bioinformatics and experimental methods were used to analyze the expression, the clinical significance, the cellular function and potential mechanisms of ARHGEF6 in LUAD.

RESULTS

ARHGEF6 was downregulated in LUAD tumor tissues and correlated negatively with poor prognosis and tumor stemness, positively with the Stromal score, the Immune score and the ESTIMATE score. The expression level of ARHGEF6 was also associated with drug sensitivity, the abundance of immune cells, the expression levels of Immune checkpoint genes and immunotherapy response. Mast cells, T cells and NK cells were the first three cells with the highest expression of ARHGEF6 in LUAD tissues. Overexpression of ARHGEF6 reduced proliferation and migration of LUAD cells and the growth of xenografted tumors, which could be reversed by re-knockdown of ARHGEF6. Results of RNA sequencing revealed that ARHGEF6 overexpression induced significant changes in the expression profile of LUAD cells, and genes encoding uridine 5'-diphosphate-glucuronic acid transferases (UGTs) and extracellular matrix (ECM) components were downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

ARHGEF6 functions as a tumor suppressor in LUAD and may serve as a new prognostic marker and potential therapeutic target. Regulating tumor microenvironment and immunity, inhibiting the expression of UGTs and ECM components in the cancer cells, and decreasing the stemness of the tumors may among the mechanisms underlying the function of ARHGEF6 in LUAD.

Development and validation of a novel anoikis-related gene signature for predicting prognosis in ovarian cancer

Anoikis plays a critical role in variable cancer types. However, studies that focus on the prognostic values of anoikis-related genes (ANRGs) in OV are scarce. Cohorts with transcriptome data and corresponding clinicopathologic data of OV patients were collected and consolidated from public databases. Multiple bioinformatics approaches were used to screen key genes from 446 anoikis-related genes, including Cox regression analysis, random survival forest analysis, and Kaplan-Meier analysis of best combinations. A five-gene signature was constructed in the discovery cohort (TCGA) and validated in four validation cohorts (GEO). Risk score of the signature stratified patients into high-risk (HRisk) and low-risk (LRisk) subgroups. Patients in the HRisk group were associated with worse OS than those in the LRisk group in both the TCGA cohort (p<0.0001, HR=2.718, 95%CI:1.872-3.947) and the four GEO cohorts (p<0.05). Multivariate Cox regression analyses confirmed that the risk score served as an independent prognostic factor in both cohorts. The signature's predictive capacity was further demonstrated by the nomogram analysis. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed that immunosuppressive and malignant progression-related pathways were enriched in the HRisk group, including TGF-β, WNT and ECM pathways. The LRisk group was characterized by immune-active signaling pathways (interferon-gamma, T cell activation, etc.) and higher proportions of anti-tumor immune cells (NK, M1, etc.) while HRisk patients were associated with higher stromal scores and less TCR richness. In conclusion, the signature reveals a close relationship between the anoikis and prognosis and may provide a potential therapeutic target for OV patients.

VSTM2L contributes to anoikis resistance and acts as a novel biomarker for metastasis and clinical outcome in ovarian cancer

The majority of patients are diagnosed when ovarian cancer (OC) has metastasized, making surgery and chemotherapy less effective. Thus, there is an urgent need to elucidate the mechanisms underlying metastasis and to further explore novel diagnostic biomarkers of OC metastasis. Here, we conducted a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen for anoikis resistance to identify key genes associated with OC metastasis. Further, bioinformatic analysis was performed using TCGA and GTEx datasets to explore the genes associated with OC progression and prognosis. After integrated analysis, the V-set and transmembrane domain-containing protein 2-like (VSTM2L) was identified as a crucial gene closely associated with OC metastasis, progression, and prognosis. Further validation using a patient-based cohort suggested that VSTM2L expression was significantly higher in metastatic lesions than in primary lesions. Subsequently, an in vitro assay showed that VSTM2L silencing increased SKOV3 cell death and hampered spheroid formation. Mechanistically, GSEA highlighted that epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related pathways was positively associated with VSTM2L expression. Consistently, the validation based on the VSTM2L silence suggested the involvement of VSTM2L in EMT-related TGF-β and NF-κB signaling. Meanwhile, the addition of VSTM2L-containing medium did not provoke those signaling, indicating VSTM2L functions as an intracellular protein to activate TGF-β and NF-κB signaling. In summary, our study revealed that VSTM2L is a novel player involved in anoikis resistance and is a promising biomarker of OC metastasis and prognosis.

Establishment and validation of a novel anoikis-related prognostic signature of clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Background

Despite progression in its treatment, the clinical outcome of patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) remains not ideal. Anoikis is a unique form of programmed apoptosis, owing to insufficient cell-matrix interactions. Anoikis plays a crucial role in tumor migration and invasion, and tumor cells could protect themselves through the capacity of anoikis resistance.

Methods

Anoikis-related genes (ARGs) were obtained from Genecards and Harmonizome portals. The ARGs related to ccRCC prognosis were identified through univariate Cox regression analysis, then we utilized these ARGs to construct a novel prognostic model for ccRCC patients. Moreover, we explored the expression profile of ARGs in ccRCC using the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) database. We also conducted Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) to probe ARGs expression of the risk score. Finally, we performed correlation analysis between ARGs and tumor immune microenvironment.

Results

We identified 17 ARGs associated with ccRCC survival, from which 7 genes were chosen to construct a prognostic model. The prognostic model was verified as an independent prognostic indicator. The expression of most ARGs was higher in ccRCC samples. These ARGs were closely correlated with immune cell infiltration and immune checkpoint members, and had independent prognostic value respectively. Functional enrichment analysis demonstrated that these ARGs were significantly associated with multiple types of malignances.

Conclusion

The prognostic signature was identified to be highly efficient in predicting ccRCC prognosis, and these ARGs were closely related to tumor microenvironment.

The role of the desmosomal protein desmocollin 2 in tumour progression in triple negative breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

The disruption of epithelial features represents a critical step during breast cancer spread. In this context, the dysregulation of desmosomal proteins has been associated with malignant progression and metastasis formation. Curiously, both tumour suppressive and pro-metastatic roles have been attributed to desmosomal structures in different cancer entities. In the present study, we describe the pro-metastatic role of the desmosomal protein desmocollin 2 (DSC2) in breast cancer.

METHODS

We analysed the prognostic role of DSC2 at mRNA and protein level using microarray data, western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. Functional consequences of DSC2 overexpression and DSC2 knock down were investigated in the triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell line MDA-MB-231 and its brain-seeking subline MDA-MB-231-BR, respectively in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

We found a significantly higher DSC2 expression in the more aggressive molecular subtypes HER2-positive and TNBC than in luminal breast cancers, as well as a significant correlation between increased DSC2 expression and a shorter disease-free-also in multivariate analysis-and overall survival. Additionally, a significant association between DSC2 expression in the primary tumour and an increased frequency of cerebral and lung metastasis could be observed. In vitro, ectopic DSC2 expression or DSC2 down-regulation in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-231-BR led to a significant tumour cell aggregation increase and decrease, respectively. Furthermore, tumour cells displaying higher DSC2 levels showed increased chemoresistance in 3D structures, but not 2D monolayer structures, suggesting the importance of cell aggregation as a means for reduced drug diffusion. In an in vivo brain dissemination xenograft mouse model, reduced expression of DSC2 in the brain-seeking TNBC cells led to a decreased amount of circulating tumour cells/clusters and, in turn, to fewer and smaller brain metastatic lesions.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that high DSC2 expression in primary TNBC is associated with a poorer prognosis, firstly by increasing tumour cell aggregation, secondly by reducing the diffusion and effectiveness of chemotherapeutic agents, and, lastly, by promoting the circulation and survival of tumour cell clusters, each of which facilitates distant organ colonisation.

The Journey of Cancer Cells to the Brain: Challenges and Opportunities

Cancer metastases into the brain constitute one of the most severe, but not uncommon, manifestations of cancer progression. Several factors control how cancer cells interact with the brain to establish metastasis. These factors include mediators of signaling pathways participating in migration, infiltration of the blood-brain barrier, interaction with host cells (e.g., neurons, astrocytes), and the immune system. Development of novel therapies offers a glimpse of hope for increasing the diminutive life expectancy currently forecasted for patients suffering from brain metastasis. However, applying these treatment strategies has not been sufficiently effective. Therefore, there is a need for a better understanding of the metastasis process to uncover novel therapeutic targets. In this review, we follow the journey of various cancer cells from their primary location through the diverse processes that they undergo to colonize the brain. These processes include EMT, intravasation, extravasation, and infiltration of the blood-brain barrier, ending up with colonization and angiogenesis. In each phase, we focus on the pathways engaging molecules that potentially could be drug target candidates.

Construction of a novel anoikis-related prognostic model and analysis of its correlation with infiltration of immune cells in neuroblastoma

Background

Anoikis resistance (AR) plays an important role in the process of metastasis, which is an important factor affecting the risk stage of neuroblastoma (NB). This study aims to construct an anoikis-related prognostic model and analyze the characteristics of hub genes, important pathways and tumor microenvironment of anoikis-related subtypes of NB, so as to provide help for the clinical diagnosis, treatment and research of NB.

Methods

We combined transcriptome data of GSE49710 and E-MTAB-8248, screened anoikis-related genes (Args) closely related to the prognosis of NB by univariate cox regression analysis, and divided the samples into anoikis-related subtypes by consistent cluster analysis. WGCNA was used to screen hub genes, GSVA and GSEA were used to analyze the differentially enriched pathways between anoikis-related subtypes. We analyzed the infiltration levels of immune cells between different groups by SsGSEA and CIBERSORT. Lasso and multivariate regression analyses were used to construct a prognostic model. Finally, we analyzed drug sensitivity through the GDSC database.

Results

721 cases and 283 Args were included in this study. All samples were grouped into two subtypes with different prognoses. The analyses of WGCNA, GSVA and GSEA suggested the existence of differentially expressed hub genes and important pathways in the two subtypes. We further constructed an anoikis-related prognostic model, in which 15 Args participated. This model had more advantages in evaluating the prognoses of NB than other commonly used clinical indicators. The infiltration levels of 9 immune cells were significantly different between different risk groups, and 13 Args involved in the model construction were correlated with the infiltration levels of immune cells. There was a relationship between the infiltration levels of 6 immune cells and riskscores. Finally, we screened 15 drugs with more obvious effects on NB in high-risk group.

Conclusion

There are two anoikis-related subtypes with different prognoses in the population of NB. The anoikis-related prognostic model constructed in this study can accurately predict the prognoses of children with NB, and has a good guiding significance for clinical diagnosis, treatment and research of NB.

Anoikis-related genes combined with single cell sequencing: Insights into model specification of lung adenocarcinoma and applicability for prognosis and therapy

Background: Anoikis has therapeutic potential against different malignancies including lung adenocarcinoma. This study used anoikis and bioinformatics to construct a prognostic model for lung adenocarcinoma and explore new therapeutic strategies. Methods: Several bioinformatic algorithms (co-expression analysis, univariate Cox analysis, multivariate Cox analysis, and cross-validation) were used to screen anoikis-related genes (ARGs) to construct a risk model. Lung adenocarcinoma patients were divided into training and testing groups at a ratio of 1:1. The prognostic model was validated by risk score comparison between high- and low-risk groups using receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC), nomograms, independent prognostic analysis and principal component analysis. In addition, two anoikis-related genes patterns were classified utilizing consensus clustering method and were compared with each other in survival time, immune microenvironment, and regulation in pathway. Single cell sequencing was applied to analyze anoikis-related genes constructed the model. Results: This study demonstrated the feasibility of the model based on seven anoikis-related genes, as well as identifying axitinib, nibtinib and sorafenib as potential therapeutic strategies for LUAD. Risk score based on this model had could be used as an independent prognostic factor for lung adenocarcinoma (HR > 1; p < 0.001) and had the highest accuracy to predict survival compared with the clinical characteristics. Single cell sequencing analysis discovered Keratin 14 (KRT14, one of the seven anoikis-related genes) was mainly expressed in malignant cells in various cancers. Conclusion: We identified seven anoikis-related genes and constructed an accurate risk model based on bioinformatics analysis that can be used for prognostic prediction and for the design of therapeutic strategies in clinical practice.

Exploration and identification of anoikis-related genes in polycythemia vera

Background: Polycythemia Vera (PV) is a type of typical Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPNs) characterized with excessive erythropoiesis and thrombosis. Anoikis is a special programmed cell death mode induced by the adhesion disorder between cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) or adjacent cells facilitating cancer metastasis. However, few studies have focused on the role of anoikis in PV, especially on the development of PV. Methods: The microarray and RNA-seq results were screened from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and the anoikis-related genes (ARGs) were downloaded from Genecards. The functional enrichment analysis of intersecting differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis were performed to discover hub genes. The hub genes expression was tested in the training (GSE136335) and validation cohort (GSE145802), and RT-qPCR was performed to verify the gene expression in PV mice. Results: In the training GSE136335, a total of 1,195 DEGs was obtained from Myeloproliferative Neoplasm (MPN) patients compared with controls, among which 58 were anoikis-related DEGs. The significant enrichment of the apoptosis and cell adhesion pathways (i.e., cadherin binding) were shown in functional enrichment analysis. The PPI network was conducted to identify top five hub genes (CASP3, CYCS, HIF1A, IL1B, MCL1). The expression of CASP3 and IL1B were significantly upregulated both in validation cohort and PV mice and downregulated after treatment, suggesting that CASP3 and IL1B could be important indicators for disease surveillance. Conclusion: Our research revealed a relationship between anoikis and PV for the first time by combined analysis of gene level, protein interaction and functional enrichment, allowing novel insights into mechanisms of PV. Moreover, CASP3 and IL1B may become promising indicators of PV development and treatment.

Construction of a novel molecular typing and scoring system for anoikis distinguishes between different prognostic risks and treatment responsiveness in low-grade glioma

Background

The main factors responsible for low-grade glioma (LGG)s' poor prognosis and treatment effectiveness include recurrence and malignant progression. A specific type of programmed cell death, known as anoikis, which is crucial for tumor invasion and metastasis, however, has not yet been investigated in LGGs.

Methods

We downloaded data of 509 samples from the TCGA-LGG cohort, carried out cluster analysis for typing twice on the basis of 19 anoikis-associated genes, and the subtypes were evaluated the differences in clinicopathological and biological features. ESTIMATE and single-sample gene set enrichment analysis were employed to examine the immunological milieu of LGGs, and enrichment analysis was used to look into the underlying biological mechanisms in LGGs. Cox regression analysis and the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator regression algorithm were used to create a prediction scoring system. The scoring system was used for classifying LGG into high- and low- anoikis riskscore (anoiS) groups. The impact of the anoiS on the prognosis, standard treatment, and immunotherapy of patients with LGG was assessed using survival analysis and drug sensitivity analysis. Cell experiments were employed for the verification of the differential expression between LGG cells and normal cells of the anoikis gene team that regard CCT5 as the core.

Results

Based on the expression profiles of the 19 anoikis-associated genes, all individuals with LGG were classified into four subtypes and two macrosubtypes. The different macrosubtypes had significantly different biological characteristics, and the anoirgclusterBD subtype manifested a significantly bad prognosis and a high immune level of infiltration. And subsequent secondary genotyping also showed good prognostic discrimination. We further constructed an anoikis scoring system, anoiS. LGG patients having a high anoiS had a worse prognosis in comparison to those having a low anoiS. The high anoiS group exhibited larger levels of immune infiltration and superior immunotherapy efficacy than the low anoiS group. The high anoiS group was also more susceptible to temozolomide (TMZ) than the low anoiS group, according to a drug sensitivity analysis of TMZ.

Conclusion

This study constructed a scoring system for predicting the prognosis of patients with LGG and their responsive to TMZ and immunotherapy.

Prognostic Biomarkers after Radiotherapy for Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer Based on Bioinformatics Analysis

Radiotherapy is one of the main treatment modalities in nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, tumor radiosensitivity is influenced by intrinsic factors like genetic variations and extrinsic factors like tumor microenvironment. Consequently, we hope to develop novel biomarkers, so as to improve the response rate of radiotherapy and overcome resistance to radiotherapy in NSCLC. We investigate the difference genes of primary NSCLC patients before and after radiotherapy in GSE162945 dataset. Gene Ontology (GO), KEGG, Reactome, and GSEA were employed to represent the essential gene and biological function. It was found that most pathway genes clustered in extracellular matrix and ECM-receptor signal pathway. Additionally, TMT-based proteomics was used to survey the differential proteins present in the supernatant of H460 cells before or after irradiation with 2 Gy of γ-rays. And then we take the intersection between the proteomics of H460 cell and ECM-receptor signal pathway proteins of GSE162945 datasets. The data revealed that fibronectin 1 (FN1) and thrombin reactive protein 1 (THBS1) were upregulated after radiation in both datasets. Subsequently, survival analyses using the GEPIA web server demonstrated that FN1 and THBS1 had significant prognostic values (Logrank test P value < 0.05) for LUAD and LUSC. Our observations from this study suggest that FN1 and THBS1 might have potential to serve as novel biomarkers for predicting NSCLC tumor response to radiotherapy.

Recent Progress on the Role of Fibronectin in Tumor Stromal Immunity and Immunotherapy

As a major component of the stromal microenvironment of various solid tumors, the extracellular matrix (ECM) has attracted increasing attention in cancer-related studies. ECM in the tumor stroma not only provides an external barrier and framework for tumor cell adhesion and movement, but also acts as an active regulator that modulates the tumor microenvironment, including stromal immunity. Fibronectin (Fn), as a core component of the ECM, plays a key role in the assembly and remodeling of the ECM. Hence, understanding the role of Fn in the modulation of tumor stromal immunity is of great importance for cancer immunotherapy. Hence, in-depth studies on the underlying mechanisms of Fn in tumors are urgently needed to clarify the current understanding and issues and to identify new and specific targets for effective diagnosis and treatment purposes. In this review, we summarize the structure and role of Fn, its potent derivatives in tumor stromal immunity, and their biological effects and mechanisms in tumor development. In addition, we discuss the novel applications of Fn in tumor treatment. Therefore, this review can provide prospective insight into Fn immunotherapeutic applications in tumor treatment.

Transformable ECM Deprivation System Effectively Suppresses Renal Cell Carcinoma by Reversing Anoikis Resistance and Increasing Chemotherapy Sensitivity

Extracellular matrix (ECM) is crucial in various biological functions during tumor progression, including induction of anoikis resistance and cell adhesion-mediated drug resistance (CAM-DR). Fibronectin (FN) is a vital ECM component with direct regulatory effects on ECM-mediated anoikis resistance and CAM-DR, making it an attractive and innovative therapeutic target for depriving ECM in tumor tissue. Herein, an ECM deprivation system (EDS) is developed based on FN targeting self-assembly peptide for constructing nanofibers in the ECM of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), which contributes to: i) targeting and recognizing FN to form nanofibers for long-term retention in ECM, ii) reversing anoikis resistance via arresting the FN signaling pathway, and iii) serving as a drug-loading platform for sensitizing chemotherapy by ameliorating CAM-DR. The results reveal that EDS significantly reverses anoikis resistance of RCC cells by inhibiting the phosphorylation of FAK, a positive regulator of the FN signaling pathway. Meanwhile, EDS serves as a chemotherapy-sensitizer of cancer, exerting significant synergistic effects with doxorubicin (DOX). In vivo validation experiments show that EDS effectively suppresses metastasis and tumor growth with chemotherapy resistance. Collectively, the innovative EDS notably inhibits the tumor-promoting effect of ECM and may provide a novel approach for suppressing ECM and enhancing chemo-drug sensitivity.

Anoikis-Associated Lung Cancer Metastasis: Mechanisms and Therapies

Simple Summary

Anoikis is a programmed cell death process resulting from the loss of interaction between cells and the extracellular matrix. Therefore, it is necessary to overcome anoikis when tumor cells acquire metastatic potential. In lung cancer, the composition of the extracellular matrix, cell adhesion-related membrane proteins, cytoskeletal regulators, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition are involved in the process of anoikis, and the initiation of apoptosis signals is a critical step in anoikis. Inversely, activation of growth signals counteracts anoikis. This review summarizes the regulators of lung cancer-related anoikis and explores potential drug applications targeting anoikis.

Abstract

Tumor metastasis occurs in lung cancer, resulting in tumor progression and therapy failure. Anoikis is a mechanism of apoptosis that combats tumor metastasis; it inhibits the escape of tumor cells from the native extracellular matrix to other organs. Deciphering the regulators and mechanisms of anoikis in cancer metastasis is urgently needed to treat lung cancer. Several natural and synthetic products exhibit the pro-anoikis potential in lung cancer cells and in vivo models. These products include artonin E, imperatorin, oroxylin A, lupalbigenin, sulforaphane, renieramycin M, avicequinone B, and carbenoxolone. This review summarizes the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of anoikis regulation and relevant regulators involved in lung cancer metastasis and discusses the therapeutic potential of targeting anoikis in the treatment of lung cancer metastasis.

A novel anoikis-related gene signature predicts prognosis in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and reveals immune infiltration

Background: Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a highly aggressive disease with a poor prognosis for advanced tumors. Anoikis play a key role in cancer metastasis, facilitating the detachment and survival of cancer cells from the primary tumor site. However, few studies have focused on the role of anoikis in HNSC, especially on the prognosis.

Methods: Anoikis-related genes (ANRGs) integrated from Genecards and Harmonizome portals were used to identify HNSCC subtypes and to construct a prognostic model for HNSCC patients. Also, we explored the immune microenvironment and enrichment pathways between different subtypes. Finally, we provide clinical experts with a novel nomogram based on ANRGs, with DCA curves indicating the potential clinical benefit of the model for clinical strategies.

Results: We identified 69 survival-related HNSCC anoikis-related DEGs, from which 7 genes were selected to construct prognostic models. The prognostic risk score was identified as an independent prognostic factor. Functional analysis showed that these high and low risk groups had different immune status and drug sensitivity. Next risk scores were combined with HNSCC clinicopathological features together to construct a nomogram, and DCA analysis showed that the model could benefit patients from clinical treatment strategies.

Conclusion: The predictive seven-gene signature and nomogram established in this study can assist clinicians in selecting personalized treatment for patients with HNSCC.

Identification and validation of an anoikis-associated gene signature to predict clinical character, stemness, IDH mutation, and immune filtration in glioblastoma

Background

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prominent and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults. Anoikis is a specific form of programmed cell death that plays a key role in tumor invasion and metastasis. The presence of anti-anoikis factors is associated with tumor aggressiveness and drug resistance.

Methods

The non-negative matrix factorization algorithm was used for effective dimension reduction for integrated datasets. Differences in the tumor microenvironment (TME), stemness indices, and clinical characteristics between the two clusters were analyzed. Difference analysis, weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA), univariate Cox regression, and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression were leveraged to screen prognosis-related genes and construct a risk score model. Immunohistochemistry was performed to evaluate the expression of representative genes in clinical specimens. The relationship between the risk score and the TME, stemness, clinical traits, and immunotherapy response was assessed in GBM and pancancer.

Results

Two definite clusters were identified on the basis of anoikis-related gene expression. Patients with GBM assigned to C1 were characterized by shortened overall survival, higher suppressive immune infiltration levels, and lower stemness indices. We further constructed a risk scoring model to quantify the regulatory patterns of anoikis-related genes. The higher risk score group was characterized by a poor prognosis, the infiltration of suppressive immune cells and a differentiated phenotype, whereas the lower risk score group exhibited the opposite effects. In addition, patients in the lower risk score group exhibited a higher frequency of isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations and a more sensitive response to immunotherapy. Drug sensitivity analysis was performed, revealing that the higher risk group may benefit more from drugs targeting the PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway.

Conclusion

We revealed potential relationships between anoikis-related genes and clinical features, TME, stemness, IDH mutation, and immunotherapy and elucidated their therapeutic value.

A narrative review of circulating tumor cells clusters: A key morphology of cancer cells in circulation promote hematogenous metastasis

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) that survive in the blood are playing an important role in the metastasis process of tumor. In addition, they have become a tool for tumor diagnosis, prognosis and recurrence monitoring. CTCs can exist in the blood as individual cells or as clumps of aggregated cells. In recent years, more and more studies have shown that clustered CTCs have stronger metastasis ability compared to single CTCs. With the deepening of studies, scholars have found that cancer cells can combine not only with each other, but also with non-tumor cells present in the blood, such as neutrophils, platelets, etc. At the same time, it was confirmed that non-tumor cells bound to CTCs maintain the survival and proliferation of cancer cells through a variety of ways, thus promoting the occurrence and development of tumor. In this review, we collected information on tumorigenesis induced by CTC clusters to make a summary and a discussion about them. Although CTC clusters have recently been considered as a key role in the transition process, many characteristics of them remain to be deeply explored. A detailed understanding of their vulnerability can prospectively pave the way for new inhibitors for metastasis.

Emergence of Resistance to MTI-101 Selects for a MET Genotype and Phenotype in EGFR Driven PC-9 and PTEN Deleted H446 Lung Cancer Cell Lines

MTI-101 is a first-in-class cyclic peptide that kills cells via calcium overload in a caspase-independent manner. Understanding biomarkers of response is critical for positioning a novel therapeutic toward clinical development. Isogenic MTI-101-acquired drug-resistant lung cancer cell line systems (PC-9 and H446) coupled with differential RNA-SEQ analysis indicated that downregulated genes were enriched in the hallmark gene set for epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in both MTI-101-acquired resistant cell lines. The RNA-SEQ results were consistent with changes in the phenotype, including a decreased invasion in Matrigel and expression changes in EMT markers (E-cadherin, vimentin and Twist) at the protein level. Furthermore, in the EGFR-driven PC-9 cell line, selection for resistance towards MTI-101 resulted in collateral sensitivity toward EGFR inhibitors. MTI-101 treatment showed synergistic activity with the standard of care agents erlotinib, osimertinib and cisplatin when used in combination in PC-9 and H446 cells, respectively. Finally, in vivo data indicate that MTI-101 treatment selects for increased E-cadherin and decreased vimentin in H446, along with a decreased incident of bone metastasis in the PC-9 in vivo model. Together, these data indicate that chronic MTI-101 treatment can lead to a change in cell state that could potentially be leveraged therapeutically to reduce metastatic disease.