Gold nanoparticles and obese adipose tissue microenvironment in cancer treatment

The new era of pancreatic cancer treatment: Application of nanotechnology breaking through bottlenecks

Since the advent of nanomedicine, physicians have harnessed these approaches for the prophylaxis, detection, and therapy of life-threatening diseases, particularly cancer. Nanoparticles have demonstrated notable efficacy in cancer therapy, showcasing the primary application of nanotechnology in targeted drug delivery. Pancreatic cancer stands out as the most lethal solid tumour in humans. The low survival rate is attributed to its highly aggressive nature, intrinsic resistance to chemotherapeutics, and the lack of successful therapies, compounded by delayed diagnosis due to nonspecific symptoms and the absence of rapid diagnostic strategies. Despite these challenges, nanotechnology-based carrier methods have been successfully employed in imaging and therapy approaches. Overcoming drug resistance in pancreatic cancer necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the microenvironment associated with the disease, paving the way for innovative nanocarriers. Hindered chemotherapy infiltration, attributed to inadequate vascularization and a dense tumour stroma, is a major hurdle that nanotechnology addresses. Intelligent delivery techniques, based on the Enhanced Permeability and Retention effect, form the basis of recently developed anticancer nanocarriers. These advancements aim to enhance drug accumulation in tumour locations, offering a potential solution to the treatment-resistant nature of cancer. Addressing the challenges in pancreatic cancer treatment demands innovative therapies, and the emergence of active nanocarriers presents a promising avenue for enhancing outcomes. This review specifically delves into the latest advancements in nanotechnology for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Effect of Obesity on the Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Anticancer Agents

An objective of the Precision Medicine Initiative, launched in 2015 by the US Food and Drug Administration and National Institutes of Health, is to optimize and individualize dosing of drugs, especially anticancer agents, with high pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic variability. The American Society of Clinical Oncology recently reported that 40% of obese patients receive insufficient chemotherapy doses and exposures, which may lead to reduced efficacy, and recommended pharmacokinetic studies to guide appropriate dosing in these patients. These issues will only increase in importance as the incidence of obesity in the population increases. This publication reviews the effects of obesity on (1) tumor biology, development of cancer, and antitumor response; (2) pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of small-molecule anticancer drugs; and (3) pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of complex anticancer drugs, such as carrier-mediated agents and biologics. These topics are not only important from a scientific research perspective but also from a drug development and regulator perspective. Thus, it is important to evaluate the effects of obesity on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anticancer agents in all categories of body habitus and especially in patients who are obese and morbidly obese. As the effects of obesity on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anticancer agents may be highly variable across drug types, the optimal dosing metric and algorithm for difference classes of drugs may be widely different. Thus, studies are needed to evaluate current and novel metrics and methods for measuring body habitus as related to optimizing the dose and reducing pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic variability of anticancer agents in patients who are obese and morbidly obese.

Advances in preparation, biomedical, and pharmaceutical applications of chitosan-based gold, silver, and magnetic nanoparticles: A review

During the last decades, the ever-increasing incidence of various diseases, like cancer, has led to a high rate of death worldwide. On the other hand, conventional modalities (such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy) have not indicated enough efficiency in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Thus, potential novel approaches should be taken into consideration to pave the way for the suppression of diseases. Among novel approaches, biomaterials, like chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs, N-acetyl-glucosamine and D-glucosamine), have been approved by the FDA for some efficient pharmaceutical applications. These NPs owing to their physicochemical properties, modification with different molecules, biocompatibility, serum stability, less immune response, suitable pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, etc. have received deep attention among researchers and clinicians. More importantly, the impact of CS polysaccharide in the synthesis, preparation, and delivery of metallic NPs (like gold, silver, and magnetic NPs), and combination of CS with these metallic NPs can further facilitate the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Metallic NPs possess some features, like converting NIR photon energy into thermal energy and anti-microorganism capability, and can be a potential candidate for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases in combination with CS NPs. These combined NPs would be efficient pharmaceuticals in the future.

Nano-drug delivery system targeting tumor microenvironment: A prospective strategy for melanoma treatment

Melanoma, the most aggressive form of cutaneous malignancy arising from melanocytes, is frequently characterized by metastasis. Despite considerable progress in melanoma therapies, patients with advanced-stage disease often have a poor prognosis due to the limited efficacy, off-target effects, and toxicity associated with conventional drugs. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges with nanoparticles capable of delivering therapeutic agents specifically to the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the clinical approval of nanomedicines for melanoma treatment remains limited, necessitating further research to develop nanoparticles with improved biocompatibility and precise targeting capabilities. This comprehensive review provides an overview of the current research on nano-drug delivery systems for melanoma treatment, focusing on liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. It discusses the potential of these nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, as well as their ability to enhance the efficacy of conventional drugs while minimizing toxicity. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the significance of interdisciplinary collaboration between researchers from various fields to advance the development of nanomedicines. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians interested in the potential of nano-drug delivery systems for melanoma treatment and offers insights into future directions for research in this field.

Metal-based nanomaterials and nanocomposites as promising frontier in cancer chemotherapy

Cancer is a disease associated with complex pathology and one of the most prevalent and leading reasons for mortality in the world. Current chemotherapy has challenges with cytotoxicity, selectivity, multidrug resistance, and the formation of stemlike cells. Nanomaterials (NMs) have unique properties that make them useful for various diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in cancer research. NMs can be engineered to target cancer cells for early detection and can deliver drugs directly to cancer cells, reducing side effects and improving treatment efficacy. Several of NMs can also be used for photothermal therapy to destroy cancer cells or enhance immune response to cancer by delivering immune-stimulating molecules to immune cells or modulating the tumor microenvironment. NMs are being modified to overcome issues, such as toxicity, lack of selectivity, increase drug capacity, and bioavailability, for a wide spectrum of cancer therapies. To improve targeted drug delivery using nano-carriers, noteworthy research is required. Several metal-based NMs have been studied with the expectation of finding a cure for cancer treatment. In this review, the current development and the potential of plant and metal-based NMs with their effects on size and shape have been discussed along with their more effective usage in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Synthesis of pH-responsive polyzwitterions for activated cellular uptake and tumor accumulation of gold nanoparticles at tumorous acidity

The response sensitivity of surface material plays an important role in adjustable nano-bio interactionin vivo. In this present, a zwitterionic polymer (polyzwitterion) containing quaternary ammonium cation and sulfonamide anion poly(4-((4-(3-(methacryloyloxy)propoxy)phenyl) sulfonamido)-N, N, N-trimethyl-4-oxobutan-1-aminium chloride) (PMPTSA) was synthesized by Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization (RAFT) polymerization to explore the pH responsive behavior in tumors. The PMPTSA-coated gold nanoparticles (PMPTSA-@-Au NPs) showed zwitterionic nature such as antifouling ability, low cellular uptake and prolonged circulation time similar with common hydrophilic polymers, including polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly(carboxybetaine methacrylate) and poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) functional gold nanoparticles in physiological environment (pH 7.4). A high sensitivity and reversible positive charge conversion of P(MPTSA)-@-Au NPs at tumor slight acidic microenvironment (∼pH 6.8) leaded to an enhanced cellular internalization than that at pH 7.4 and increased tumor accumulation compared with PEG, polycarboxybetaines and polymer sulphobetaine (PSB) functional gold nanoparticles. The highly pH responsive PMPTSA will provide the promising application in cancer nanomedicine.

Therapeutics of Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiocerebrovascular and Metabolic Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale membranous vesicles containing DNA, RNA, lipids, and proteins, which play versatile roles in intercellular communications. EVs are increasingly being recognized as the promising therapeutic agents for many diseases, including cardiocerebrovascular and metabolic diseases, due to their ability to deliver functional and therapeutical molecules. In this chapter, the biological characteristics and functions of EVs are briefly summarized. Importantly, the current state of applying EVs in the prevention and treatment of cardiocerebrovascular and metabolic diseases, including myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation, myocardial hypertrophy, stroke, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, fatty liver, obesity, thyroid diseases, and osteoporosis, is discussed. Lastly, the challenges and prospects related to the preclinical and clinical application of EVs receive a particular focus.

Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Gracilaria crassa leaf extract and their ecotoxicological potential: Issues to be considered

The use of vegetal species for gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) biosynthesis can constitute an alternative to replacing the extensive use of several hazardous chemicals commonly used during NPs synthesis and, therefore, can reduce biological impacts induced by the release of these products into the natural environment. However, the "green nanoparticles" and/or "eco-friendly nanoparticles" label does not ensure that biosynthesized NPs are harmless to non-target organisms. Thus, we aimed to synthesize AuNPs from seaweed Gracilaria crassa aqueous extract through an eco-friendly, fast, one-pot synthetic route. The formation of spherical, stable, polycrystalline NPs with a diameter of 32.0 nm ± 4.0 nm (mean ±SEM) was demonstrated by UV-vis spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray and X-ray diffraction measurement, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. In addition, different phytocomponents were identified in the biosynthesized AuNPs, using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). However, both G. crassa aqueous extract and the biosynthesized AuNPs showed high ecotoxicity in Anopheles stephensi larvae exposed to different concentrations. Therefore, our study supports the potential of seaweed G. crassa as a raw material source for AuNPs biosynthesis while also shedding light on its ecotoxicological potential, which necessitates consideration of its risk to aquatic biota.

The evolving view of thermogenic fat and its implications in cancer and metabolic diseases

The incidence of metabolism-related diseases like obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus has reached pandemic levels worldwide and increased gradually. Most of them are listed on the table of high-risk factors for malignancy, and metabolic disorders systematically or locally contribute to cancer progression and poor prognosis of patients. Importantly, adipose tissue is fundamental to the occurrence and development of these metabolic disorders. White adipose tissue stores excessive energy, while thermogenic fat including brown and beige adipose tissue dissipates energy to generate heat. In addition to thermogenesis, beige and brown adipocytes also function as dynamic secretory cells and a metabolic sink of nutrients, like glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. Accordingly, strategies that activate and expand thermogenic adipose tissue offer therapeutic promise to combat overweight, diabetes, and other metabolic disorders through increasing energy expenditure and enhancing glucose tolerance. With a better understanding of its origins and biological functions and the advances in imaging techniques detecting thermogenesis, the roles of thermogenic adipose tissue in tumors have been revealed gradually. On the one hand, enhanced browning of subcutaneous fatty tissue results in weight loss and cancer-associated cachexia. On the other hand, locally activated thermogenic adipocytes in the tumor microenvironment accelerate cancer progression by offering fuel sources and is likely to develop resistance to chemotherapy. Here, we enumerate current knowledge about the significant advances made in the origin and physiological functions of thermogenic fat. In addition, we discuss the multiple roles of thermogenic adipocytes in different tumors. Ultimately, we summarize imaging technologies for identifying thermogenic adipose tissue and pharmacologic agents via modulating thermogenesis in preclinical experiments and clinical trials.

Engineering Gold Nanostructures for Cancer Treatment: Spherical Nanoparticles, Nanorods, and Atomically Precise Nanoclusters

Cancer is a major global health issue and is a leading cause of mortality. It has been documented that various conventional treatments can be enhanced by incorporation with nanomaterials. Thanks to their rich optical properties, excellent biocompatibility, and tunable chemical reactivities, gold nanostructures have been gaining more and more research attention for cancer treatment in recent decades. In this review, we first summarize the recent progress in employing three typical gold nanostructures, namely spherical Au nanoparticles, Au nanorods, and atomically precise Au nanoclusters, for cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. Following that, the challenges and the future perspectives of this field are discussed. Finally, a brief conclusion is summarized at the end.