Exosomes; multifaceted nanoplatform for targeting brain cancers

Irradiated tumor cell-released microparticles enhance the therapeutic efficacy of PD-1 inhibitors by promoting M1-TAMs polarization in NSCLC brain metastases

Brain metastases (BMs) are the most common sites of metastasis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, BMs are not responsive to immunotherapy because of the blood-brain barrier. This is because intracranial immune cells such as M2 tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) accumulate, creating an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this study, we focused on irradiated tumor cell-released microparticles (RT-MPs) that can cross the blood-brain barrier and influence the intracranial immune microenvironment. Using animal models of BMs, we observed that RT-MPs could penetrate the blood-brain barrier and be swallowed by TAMs. Then the microenvironment of TAMs is shifted from the M2 phenotype to the M1 phenotype, thereby modulating the interactions between TAMs and tumor cells. Single-cell sequencing analysis demonstrated that TAMs, after internalizing RT-MPs, active chemokine signaling pathways and secrete more chemokines, such as CCL5, CXCL2, CXCL1, CCL3, CCL4, and CCL22, attracting more CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells, improving immune-mediated killing, and enhancing subsequent combination anti-PD-1 therapy. These findings provide a preclinical foundation for exploring alternative treatments for patients with immunoresistant NSCLC BMs.

Exosomes: Their role in the diagnosis, progression, metastasis, and treatment of glioblastoma

Exosomes are crucial for the growth and spread of glioblastomas, an aggressive form of brain cancer. These tiny vesicles play a crucial role in the activation of signaling pathways and intercellular communication. They can also transfer a variety of biomolecules such as proteins, lipids and nucleic acids from donor to recipient cells. Exosomes can influence the immune response by regulating the activity of immune cells, and they are crucial for the growth and metastasis of glioblastoma cells. In addition, exosomes contribute to drug resistance during treatment, which is a major obstacle in the treatment of glioblastoma. By studying them, the diagnosis and prognosis of glioblastoma can be improved. Due to their high biocompatibility and lack of toxicity, they have become an attractive option for drug delivery. The development of exosomes as carriers of specific therapeutic agents could overcome some of the obstacles to effective treatment of glioblastoma. In this review, we address the potential of exosomes for the treatment of glioblastoma and show how they can be modified for this purpose.

Crosstalk between the nervous system and tumor microenvironment: Functional aspects and potential therapeutic strategies

Recent advancements in understanding the tumor microenvironment (TME) have highlighted the critical role of the nervous system in cancer progression. This review comprehensively examines how the nervous system influences various aspects of tumorigenesis, including growth, motility, immune response, angiogenesis, and the behavior of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). We delineate the neurodevelopmental mechanisms associated with cancer, such as the secretion of neurotrophins and exosomes by cancer cells. Furthermore, we explore the emerging therapeutic strategy of targeting nerves associated with tumors. Evidence supporting this approach includes studies demonstrating direct tumor growth inhibition, enhanced efficacy of immunotherapy when combined with nervous system-modulating drugs, and the suppression of tumor blood vessel formation through nerve targeting. Finally, we discuss the current challenges in this field and emphasize the need for further exploration within cancer neuroscience.

Application of exosomes in tumor immunity: recent progresses

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles secreted by cells, ranging in size from 30 to 150 nm. They contain proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other bioactive molecules, which play a crucial role in intercellular communication and material transfer. In tumor immunity, exosomes present various functions while the following two are of great importance: regulating the immune response and serving as delivery carriers. This review starts with the introduction of the formation, compositions, functions, isolation, characterization, and applications of exosomes, and subsequently discusses the current status of exosomes in tumor immunotherapy, and the recent applications of exosome-based tumor immunity regulation and antitumor drug delivery. Finally, current challenge and future prospects are proposed and hope to demonstrate inspiration for targeted readers in the field.

Exosomes in lung cancer metastasis, diagnosis, and immunologically relevant advances

Lung cancer is a chronic wasting disease with insidious onset and long treatment cycle. Exosomes are specialized extracellular vesicles, at first exosomes were considered as a transporter of cellular metabolic wastes, but recently many studies have identified exosomes which contain a variety of biologically active substances that play a role in the regulation of cellular communication and physiological functions. Exosomes play an important role in the development of lung cancer and can promote metastasis through a variety of mechanisms. However, at the same time, researchers have also discovered that immune cells can also inhibit lung cancer through exosomes. In addition, researchers have discovered that some specific miRNAs in exosomes can be used as markers for early diagnosis of lung cancer. Engineering exosomes may be one of the strategies to enhance the clinical translational application of exosomes in the future, for example, strategies such as modifying exosomes to enhance targeting or utilizing exosomes as carriers for drug delivery have been explored. but more studies are needed to verify the safety and efficacy. This article reviews the latest research on exosomes in the field of lung cancer, from the mechanism of lung cancer development, the functions of immune cell-derived exosomes and tumor-derived exosomes, to the early diagnosis of lung cancer.

Exosome-bearing hydrogels and cardiac tissue regeneration

BACKGROUND

In recent years, cardiovascular disease in particular myocardial infarction (MI) has become the predominant cause of human disability and mortality in the clinical setting. The restricted capacity of adult cardiomyocytes to proliferate and restore the function of infarcted sites is a challenging issue after the occurrence of MI. The application of stem cells and byproducts such as exosomes (Exos) has paved the way for the alleviation of cardiac tissue injury along with conventional medications in clinics. However, the short lifespan and activation of alloreactive immune cells in response to Exos and stem cells are the main issues in patients with MI. Therefore, there is an urgent demand to develop therapeutic approaches with minimum invasion for the restoration of cardiac function.

MAIN BODY

Here, we focused on recent data associated with the application of Exo-loaded hydrogels in ischemic cardiac tissue. Whether and how the advances in tissue engineering modalities have increased the efficiency of whole-based and byproducts (Exos) therapies under ischemic conditions. The integration of nanotechnology and nanobiology for designing novel smart biomaterials with therapeutic outcomes was highlighted.

CONCLUSION

Hydrogels can provide suitable platforms for the transfer of Exos, small molecules, drugs, and other bioactive factors for direct injection into the damaged myocardium. Future studies should focus on the improvement of physicochemical properties of Exo-bearing hydrogel to translate for the standard treatment options.

Amniotic fluid-derived exosomes attenuated fibrotic changes in POI rats through modulation of the TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway

In the current study, we investigated the regenerative effects of amniotic fluid exosomes (AF-Exos) in a rat model for premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). POI is a condition characterized by a decrease in ovarian function that can lead to infertility. We induced POI by administering cyclophosphamide (CTX) for 15 consecutive days, and then transplanted AF-Exos directly into both ovarian tissues. Four weeks later, we measured the serum levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and estradiol (E2), and performed histopathological evaluations using H & E and Masson's trichrome staining. We also monitored the expression of genes related to the TGF-β signaling pathway using real-time PCR and examined the fertility rate of POI rats after AF-Exos therapy. Histological analysis showed an increase in atretic follicles and a decrease in healthy follicle count after POI induction. Four weeks post-AF-Exos intervention, the healthy follicle count increased (p < 0.01) while the atretic follicle count decreased (p < 0.001). In parallel, the deposition of collagen fibers also decreased following AF-Exos transplantation. The concentrations of FSH and LH hormones in sera remained unchanged after injection of AF-Exos, while E2 levels increased (p < 0.05). The expression of Smad-4 (p < 0.01) and Smad-6 (p < 0.05) was upregulated in POI rats that received AF-Exos, while Smad-2, TGF-β1, TNF-α, and IL-10 remained statistically unchanged. Our records showed a notable increase in litter number after AF-Exos compared to the non-treated POI rats. These results suggest that AF-Exos transplantation has the potential to restore ovarian function through the TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway in POI rats.

Exosomes: Promising Delivery Tools for Overcoming Blood-Brain Barrier and Glioblastoma Therapy

Gliomas make up virtually 80% of all lethal primary brain tumors and are categorized based on their cell of origin. Glioblastoma is an astrocytic tumor that has an inferior prognosis despite the ongoing advances in treatment modalities. One of the main reasons for this shortcoming is the presence of the blood-brain barrier and blood-brain tumor barrier. Novel invasive and non-invasive drug delivery strategies for glioblastoma have been developed to overcome both the intact blood-brain barrier and leverage the disrupted nature of the blood-brain tumor barrier to target cancer cells after resection-the first treatment stage of glioblastoma. Exosomes are among non-invasive drug delivery methods and have emerged as a natural drug delivery vehicle with high biological barrier penetrability. There are various exosome isolation methods from different origins, and the intended use of the exosomes and starting materials defines the choice of isolation technique. In the present review, we have given an overview of the structure of the blood-brain barrier and its disruption in glioblastoma. This review provided a comprehensive insight into novel passive and active drug delivery techniques to overcome the blood-brain barrier, emphasizing exosomes as an excellent emerging drug, gene, and effective molecule delivery vehicle used in glioblastoma therapy.