Optimization of enzyme-assisted extraction and characterization of polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus

Insights into chemical components, health-promoting effects, and processing impact of golden chanterelle mushroom Cantharellus cibarius

Cantharellus cibarius (CC) is a culinary mushroom with significant commercial potential due to its diverse components and bioactive functions. CC is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and aroma compounds while being low in fat and calories. Moreover, CC contains an abundance of bioactive substances including phenolic compounds, vitamin precursors, and indole derivatives. Numerous studies have claimed that CC has diverse functions such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunoregulation, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and prebiotic effects in in vivo or in vitro settings. In addition, a variety of thermal, physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods have been investigated for the processing and preservation of CC. Consequently, this study aims to present a comprehensive review of the chemical composition, health benefits, and processing techniques of CC. Furthermore, the issue of heavy metal accumulation in CC has been indicated and discussed. The study highlights the potential of CC as a functional food in the future while providing valuable insights for future research and identifying areas requiring further investigation.

Effects of different extraction methods on the structural and biological properties of Hericium coralloides polysaccharides

In current study, polysaccharides from Hericium coralloides were extracted by heat reflux, acid-assisted, alkali-assisted, enzyme-assisted, ultrasonic-assisted, cold water, pressurized hot water, hydrogen peroxide/ascorbic acid system and acid-chlorite delignification methods, which were named as HRE-P, ACE-P, AAE-P, EAE-P, UAE-P, CWE-P, PHE-P, HAE-P, and ACD-P, respectively. Their physicochemical properties, structural characteristics, and antioxidant activities were investigated and compared. Experimental outcomes indicated notable variations in the extraction yields, chemical compositions, monosaccharide constituents and molecular weights of the obtained nine polysaccharides. HRE-P demonstrated the highest activity against ABTS and OH radicals, CWE-P against ABTS, DPPH, and superoxide radicals, and UAE-P against DPPH radicals. In addition, UAE-P, CWE-P, and HAE-P exhibited better protective effects on L929 cells, when compared to the other obtained polysaccharides. Additionally, correlation analysis indicated that monosaccharide composition and total polyphenol content were two prominent variables influencing the bioactivity of H. coralloides polysaccharides.

Optimisation of enzyme-assisted extraction of camptothecin from Nothapodytes nimmoniana and its characterisation

INTRODUCTION

Efficient extraction of camptothecin (CPT), an anticancer agent from the commercial source Nothapodytes nimmoniana (J. Graham) Mabb in India, is of paramount importance. CPT is present in the highest concentration in the stem portion, and the stem can be readily harvested without uprooting the plant. The fluorescence microscopy mapping of the bark matrix for CPT revealed its presence in a free form within both the outer (epidermal and cortical tissues) and inner (xylem and phloem tissues) sections. The bark matrix primarily consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, rendering it woody, rigid, and resistant to efficient solvent penetration for CPT extraction. We proposed a hypothesis that subjecting it to disruption through treatment with hydrolytic enzymes like cellulase and xylanase could enhance solvent diffusion, thereby enabling a swift and effective extraction of CPT.

OBJECTIVE

The present study was aimed at enzyme-assisted extraction, using cellulase and xylanase for hydrolytic disruption of the cells to readily access CPT from the stem of the plant N. nimmoniana (J. Graham) Mabb.

METHODOLOGY

The hydrolytic cell disruption of ground powder from the stem bark was studied using cellulase and xylanase enzymes. The enzymatically pretreated stem bark powder was subsequently recovered by filtration, dried, and subjected to extraction with methanol to isolate CPT. This process was optimised through a Box-Behnken design, employing a one-factor-at-a-time approach to assess parameters such as enzyme concentration (2-10% w/w), pH (3-7), incubation time (6-24 h), and solid-to-solvent ratio (1:30-1:70 g/mL). CPT was characterised using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra, and a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed for quantification.

RESULTS

The cellulase and xylanase treatment resulted in the highest yields of 0.285% w/w and 0.343% w/w, with efficiencies of 67% and 81%, respectively, achieved in a significantly shorter time compared to the untreated material, which yielded 0.18% with an efficiency of only 42%. Extraction by utilising the predicted optimised process parameters, a nearly two-fold increase in the yield, was observed for xylanase, with incubation and solvent extraction times set at 16 and 2 h, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the spent material indicated perforations attributed to enzymatic action, suggesting that this could be a primary factor contributing to the enhanced extraction.

CONCLUSION

Enzyme-mediated hydrolytic cell disruption could be a potential approach for efficient and rapid isolation of CPT from the bark of N. nimmoniana.

Enzyme-Assisted Coextraction of Phenolics and Polysaccharides from Padina gymnospora

Brown seaweed is a promising source of polysaccharides and phenolics with industrial utility. This work reports the development of a green enzyme-assisted extraction method for simultaneously extracting polysaccharides and phenolics from the brown seaweed Padina gymnospora. Different enzymes (Cellulast, Pectinex, and Alcalase), individually and in combination, were investigated, with Alcalase alone showing the highest efficiency for the simultaneous extraction of polysaccharides and phenolics. Yields from Alcalase-assisted aqueous extraction were higher than those obtained using either water alone or conventional ethanol extraction. Alcalase-assisted extraction was subsequently optimized using a response surface methodology to maximize compound recovery. Maximal polysaccharide and phenolic recovery was obtained under the following extraction conditions: a water-to-sample ratio of 61.31 mL/g, enzyme loading of 0.32%, temperature of 60.5 °C, and extraction time of 1.95 h. The extract was then fractionated to obtain alginate-, fucoidan-, and phenolic-rich fractions. Fractions exhibited potent 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity with IC50 values of 140.55 µg/mL, 126.21 µg/mL, and 48.17 µg/mL, respectively, which were higher than those obtained from conventional extraction methods. The current work shows that bioactive polysaccharides and phenolics can be obtained together in high yield through a single aqueous-only green and efficient Alcalase-assisted extraction.

Structural characterization of chia seed polysaccharides and evaluation of its immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities

This study aims to extract an active heteropolysaccharide Chia seed polysaccharide (CSP-A) and further purified by DEAE Sepharose Fast Flow and Sepharose CL-6B chromatographic column, characterize its structure, and evaluate its antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities. Structural analysis revealed that CSP-A was composed of d-mannose, d-glucuronic acid and d-xylose in a molar ratio of 1:3:4 with molecular weight of 1.688 × 105 Da, owning 4 sugar residues of β-d-Manp-(1→, →4)-α-d-GlcpA-(1→, →2,4)-β-d-Xylp-(1→, and → 4)-β-d-Manp-(1 →. Congo red assay and microscopic characteristics showed that CSP-A in its solution may possess a helical conformation. In vitro experiments showed that CSP-A had moderate DPPH· and OH· scavenging activities. CSP-A also enhanced the phagocytosis ability of RAW 264.7 cells and prompted the release of NO, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β from RAW 264.7 cells, which indicated CSP-A had immune regulation effect. This experiment provides scientific basis for further utilization and development of chia seeds, a kind of functional food.

Optimization of Three Extraction Methods and Their Effect on the Structure and Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides in Dendrobium huoshanense

Dendrobium huoshanense is a famous edible and medicinal herb, and polysaccharides are the main bioactive component in it. In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) combined with a Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to optimize the enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), ultrasound-microwave-assisted extraction (UMAE), and hot water extraction (HWE) conditions and obtain the polysaccharides named DHP-E, DHP-UM, and DHP-H. The effects of different extraction methods on the physicochemical properties, structure characteristics, and bioactivity of polysaccharides were compared. The differential thermogravimetric curves indicated that DHP-E showed a broader temperature range during thermal degradation compared with DHP-UM and DHP-H. The SEM results showed that DHP-E displayed an irregular granular structure, but DHP-UM and DHP-H were sponge-like. The results of absolute molecular weight indicated that polysaccharides with higher molecular weight detected in DHP-H and DHP-UM did not appear in DHP-E due to enzymatic degradation. The monosaccharide composition showed that DHPs were all composed of Man, Glc, and Gal but with different proportions. Finally, the glycosidic bond types, which have a significant effect on bioactivity, were decoded with methylation analysis. The results showed that DHPs contained four glycosidic bond types, including Glcp-(1→, →4)-Manp-(1→, →4)-Glcp-(1→, and →4,6)-Manp-(1→ with different ratios. Furthermore, DHP-E exhibited better DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities. These findings could provide scientific foundations for selecting appropriate extraction methods to obtain desired bioactivities for applications in the pharmaceutical and functional food industries.

Antitumor effects of polysaccharides from medicinal lower plants: A review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, yet the drugs currently approved for cancer treatment are associated with significant side effects, making it urgent to develop alternative drugs with low side effects. Polysaccharides are natural polymers with ketone or aldehyde groups, which are widely found in plants and have various biological activities such as immunomodulation, antitumor and hypolipidemic. The lower plants have attracted much attention for their outstanding anticancer effects, and many studies have shown that medicinal lower plant polysaccharides (MLPPs) have antitumor activity against various cancers and are promising alternatives with potential development in the food and pharmaceutical fields. Therefore, this review describes the structure and mechanism of action of MLPPs with antitumor activity. In addition, the application of MLPPs in cancer treatment is discussed, and the future development of MLPPs is explored.

Optimal extraction of polysaccharides from Stevia rebaudiana roots for protection against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in RAW264.7 cells

Stevia rebaudiana boasts a wide range of medical and food applications and contains polysaccharides that exert beneficial effects against oxidative stress. In this study, we optimised the extraction of a polysaccharide (SRRP) from S. rebaudiana roots by employing a Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology. The optimal extraction conditions were as follows: 93.57 min, 71.67 °C, and a water-to-raw material ratio of 21.40 mL/g. Under these conditions, 14.00 ± 0.35% of crude polysaccharide was obtained. Treatment of RAW264.7 cells with SRRP prior to the addition of H2O2, a major contributor to oxidative damage, significantly increased cell viability. In addition, SRRP increased the levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione and reduced the levels of malondialdehyde in RAW264.7 cells. Therefore, SRRP can provide effective protection against H2O2-induced oxidative damage. These findings indicate the potential of SRRP as a natural antioxidant in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Optimization of Enzyme-Assisted Aqueous Extraction of Polysaccharide from Acanthopanax senticosus and Comparison of Physicochemical Properties and Bioactivities of Polysaccharides with Different Molecular Weights

To obtain the optimal process for the enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of polysaccharides from Acanthopanax senticosus, and study the physicochemical properties of polysaccharides of different molecular weights, the extraction of Acanthopanax polysaccharides was optimized using the BBD response surface test. The polysaccharides with different molecular weights were obtained by ethanol-graded precipitation at 40%, 60%, and 80%, which were presented as ASPS40, ASPS60, and ASPS80. The polysaccharides were analyzed by HPGPC, ion chromatography, FT-IR, UV, SEM, TGA, XRD, Congo red, and I2-KI tests. The antioxidant assay was used to evaluate their antioxidant properties in vitro. The findings demonstrated that the recovery rate of Acanthopanax polysaccharide was 10.53 ± 0.682%, which is about 2.5 times greater compared to the conventional method of hot water extraction. Based on FT-IR, TGA, polysaccharides with different molecular weights did not differ in their structure or thermal stability. The XRD suggests that the internal structure of ASPSs is amorphous. Congo red and I2-KI showed that all three polysaccharides had triple helix structures with longer branched chains and more side chains. Furthermore, the antioxidant results showed the antioxidant activity of polysaccharides is not only related to the molecular weight size but also can be related to its composition and structure. These studies developed a green, and scalable method to produce polysaccharides from Acanthopanax senticosus and evaluated the properties of Acanthopanax polysaccharides of different molecular weights.

Structural and Physical Properties of Alginate Pretreated by High-Pressure Homogenization

To develop a high-efficient extraction method, we investigated the use of high-pressure homogenization (HPH) as a novel pretreatment technology for the extraction of sodium alginate (SA) from Laminaria japonica. After the single-factor experiment, the results demonstrated that under the conditions of 100 MPa HPH pressure, 4 cycles, pH 6.0, and 0.5% EDTA for 3.0 h, the optimized extraction yield of HPH reached 34%. To further clarify the effect on the structural properties of HPH-extracted SA, we conducted comprehensive analysis using SEM, FTIR, MRS, NMR, XRD, TGA, and a T-AOC assay. Our findings revealed that HPH pretreatment significantly disrupted the structure of L. japonica cells and reduced their crystallinity to 76.27%. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity of HPH-extracted SA reached 0.02942 mgVceq∙mg-1. Therefore, the HPH pretreatment method is a potential strategy for the extraction of alginate.

Significance of culture period on the physiochemistry and anti-cancer potentials of polysaccharides from mycelia of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GPS) have many functions. Polysaccharides are abundant in G. lucidum mycelia, but it is unclear whether the production and chemical characteristics of polysaccharides are related to the liquid cultural periods of mycelia. This study harvests G. lucidum mycelia at different cultural stages and isolates GPS and sulfated polysaccharides (GSPS) separately to determine an optimum cultural duration. After 42 and 49 days of mycelia are found to be the best times to harvest GPS and GSPS. Characteristic studies show that glucose and galactose are the main sugars in GPS and GSPS. The molecular weights of various GPS and GSPS are mainly distributed at >1000 kDa and from 101 to 1000 kDa. The sulfate content of GSPS at Day 49 is greater than that at Day 7. GPS and GSPS at 49 days exhibits a good anticancer effect but does not affect normal fibroblasts. GPS and GSPS that is isolated on day 49 inhibits lung cancer by suppressing epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and transforming growth factor beta receptor (TGFβR)-mediated signaling networks. These results show that the mycelia of G. lucidum that are cultured for 49 days exhibit the best biological characteristics.

Downstream Processing of Medicinal Mushroom Products

Medicinal mushrooms are higher fungi that consist of ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, and imperfect fungi. They have been long used as tonic and traditional medicine in East Asia, Europe, and Africa. Contemporary pharmacological researches have revealed that they possess a wide spectrum of bioactivity due to their production of a variety of bioactive compounds. Some of them have entered into the market; some are ready for industrial trials and further commercialization, while others are in various stages of development. According to the purpose of usage, a variety of medicinal mushroom-based products have been developed, which could be roughly divided into three general categories, i.e., nutraceuticals/functional foods, nutriceuticals/dietary supplements, and pharmaceuticals. Accordingly, the downstream processing of medicinal mushroom products varies greatly. Indeed, a major characteristic of medicinal mushroom is the wide variety of secondary metabolites, due to which a broad spectrum of separation techniques must be employed. In this chapter we will present an overview of the achievements in downstream processing technology for medicinal mushroom products. Examples of separation of products such as bioactive high-molecular-weight products like polysaccharides and low-molecular-weight products like triterpenoids are given. The application of some special separation strategy, e.g., chemical reaction-assisted separation for tackling some analogs with similar physicochemical properties from medicinal mushroom, is also described.

The effect of superfine grinding on physicochemical properties of three kinds of mushroom powder

The effects of superfine grinding on apparent structure, physicochemical properties, and functional characteristics of three kinds of mushroom (Lentinus edodes, Hericium erinaceus, and Cordyceps militaris) powders were investigated. Coarse and 100-mesh powders of the mushrooms were prepared by common grinding, while a superfine powder was obtained by superfine grinding. By comparing the mushrooms before and after grinding, it was found that the mushroom fines did not produce new chemical groups but increased crystallinity. The results of the physicochemical properties revealed that the fines became less fluid after grinding. The protein content and solubility increased as the particle size decreased. The water and oil holding capacity, glucose binding capacity, cation exchange capacity, and antioxidant activity of the mushroom fines increased after grinding. This study provides a theoretical basis for the development process of edible mushroom food, as well as new ideas for the development of edible mushrooms.

Polysaccharide from Hemerocallis citrina Borani by subcritical water: Bioactivity, purification, characterization, and anti-diabetic effects in T2DM rats

Hemerocallis citrina Borani (daylily) has various health benefits. However, the structural characterization and hypoglycemic effects of its polysaccharide remain unclear. Here, we first report for the first time, the effects of subcritical water extraction temperature on bioactivity of Hemerocallis citrina Borani polysaccharide (HCBP). HCBP extracted at 160 °C had better scavenging ability of free-radical and pancreatic lipase inhibition. This study aimed to investigate the structural characterization and anti-diabetic effects of aforementioned HCBP. HCBP was separated into three fractions using a DEAE-Sepharose Fast Flow. HCBP-1 was the major component with lower molecular weight, HCBP-2 was the least abundant component, HCBP-3 was the component with higher uronic acid and molecular weight. HCBP treatment significantly decreased the concentrations of fasting blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low density lipoprotein, as well as improved glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rats. HCBP also protected the kidneys and pancreatic organs by histopathology and immunohistochemical analyses in T2DM rats. In addition, HCBP significantly increased the antioxidant enzymes activities and decreased the level of malonaldehyde to alleviated the oxidative stress injury. The results indicate HCBP extracted by subcritical water is promising functional food ingredients and could be used in T2DM treatment.

Structural analysis and in vitro antitumor effect of polysaccharides from Pholiota adiposa

Pholiota adiposa is an edible chestnut mushroom with many health benefits, such as antioxidant and anticancer activity. In this paper, polysaccharides were extracted from Pholidota adiposa using an acid extraction process. The crude polysaccharide was purified using DEAE-cellulose chromatography, and two polysaccharide fractions of SPAP2-1 and SPAP2-2 were obtained. The structure was characterized using UV, GPC, GC, FT-IR, methylation, and NMR analysis. Monosaccharide component analysis indicated that SPAP2-1 (19 kDa) and SPAP2-2 (20 kDa) contained mannose, glucose, and galactose with different molecular ratios. Their antitumor effects were investigated using the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay, Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), propidium iodide (PI) staining, and flow cytometry. By analyzing the changes in the cells, SPAP2-1 caused damage and changed the proliferation rate of HeLa cells. SPAP2-1 showed strong interference to the cell cycle of HeLa cells and induced cell apoptosis. Overall, these results suggested that polysaccharides from Pholiota adiposa, especially SPAP2-1, may have the potential to be used as a tumor cell inhibitor, which needs further study.

Astragalus Shiitake—A Novel Functional Food with High Polysaccharide Content and Anti-Proliferative Activity in a Colorectal Carcinoma Cell Line

The chemical and nutritional constituents of mushrooms can alter significantly when grown on different substrates. Based on this fact, an approach was made to cultivate a new type of mushroom, Hengshan Astragalus Shiitake, by growing Shiitake mushrooms on beds supplemented with the roots of an edible herbal plant, Astragalus membranaceus. In this study, three green extraction techniques, including microwave-enzyme assisted (MEA), ultrasound-enzyme assisted (UEA) and microwave-ultrasound-enzyme assisted (MUEA) extractions, were used to compare both the yield and antiproliferative activity of the polysaccharide-rich extracts (PREs) from HAS in human colorectal carcinoma cells (HCT 116). Both HAS-A and HAS-B extracts contain significantly higher amounts of polysaccharides when compared to the control (Shiitake extract), regardless of the extraction methods. The PREs from HAS-B have significantly higher anti-proliferative activity in HCT 116 compared to the control when using the UEA extraction method. Our findings demonstrate that HAS-B can become a novel functional food with anti-proliferative activities and the optimization of UEA extraction would help to develop new active extract-based health products.

Anti-Diabetic Activity of Polysaccharides from Auricularia cornea var. Li

Auricularia cornea var. Li. polysaccharide (ACP) has many important biological activities and has potential application value in food engineering, pharmaceutical science, and health care. The results were as follows: the extraction rate of ACP was 28.18% ± 1.41% and the purity of ACP was 86.92% ± 2.80%. ACP contains mannitol 32.41%, glucuronic acid 6.96%, rhamnose 0.32%, glucose 42.35%, galactose 0.77%, xylose 16.83%, and fucose 0.36%, without galacturonic acid and arabinose. In addition, the results of an animal test of diabetes mellitus II (DM II) with ACP showed that the total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and fasting blood glucose and water in the serum of mice with ACP were significantly lower than those in the model group; the serum SOD, hepatic glycogen, and insulin of mice added with ACP were significantly higher than those in the model group. More importantly, ACP had no significant adverse effects on organ index and liver and kidney tissue morphology in mice. These results suggest that ACP can be used as a potential functional food component for the prevention or treatment of diabetes.

Extraction of Radix trichosanthis Polysaccharides for Potential Antihyperlipidemic Application

This study focused on the optimization of ultrasound-assisted compound enzyme extraction for polysaccharides (RTPs) from Radix trichosanthis by orthogonal experiment and response surface methodology, and then its extraction kinetics model and antihyperlipidemic activities were studied. The optimum extraction process was as follows: cellulase—1.0%, papain—1.0%, pectase—0.5%, pH—5, extraction temperature—50°C, and liquid-to-solid ratio—30 mL/g; prediction value of RTPs was 7.54%; the experimental yield of RTPs was 7.22%, while 50 minutes was optimized in Weibull kinetics model. Then high-dose groups of RTP extract could reduce the TC, TG, and LDL-C levels and increase the level of HDL-C in high-fat mice, with the ability to lower the MDA content and enhance SOD level.

Comparison of water- and alkali-extracted polysaccharides from Fuzhuan brick tea and their immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo

In the present study, the purpose is to compare the effect of water extraction and alkali-assisted extraction on the structural characteristics and immunomodulatory activity of polysaccharides from Fuzhuan brick tea (FBTPs). The results indicated that water-extracted FBTPs (W-FBTPs) and alkali-extracted FBTPs (A-FBTPs) had similar molecular weights but different monosaccharide compositions, of which A-FBTPs had a higher yield and uronic acid groups corresponding to galacturonic acid (GalA). Moreover, A-FBTPs had stronger ability to promote phagocytic capacity, acid phosphatase activity and nitric oxide (NO) secretion in macrophages in vitro. In the in vivo study, A-FBTPs exhibited a promising effect to adjust the immune imbalance by enhancing the body features, antioxidant activities, immune response and intestinal mucosal barrier in cytoxan (CTX)-induced immunosuppressive mice. Besides, A-FBTP supplementation effectively improved CTX-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis, including promoting the abundance of beneficial bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus) and short chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria (e.g., Lachnospiraceae, Prevotellaceae and Ruminococcaceae), along with reducing the growth of potentially pathogenic microbes (e.g., Desulfovibrionaceae and Helicobacter). These findings suggested that alkaline extraction might be a promising way to obtain high-quality acidic polysaccharides from Fuzhuan brick tea (FBT), and A-FBTPs could be developed as novel potential prebiotics and immunomodulators for further application in food formulations.

Effect of Extraction Procedures with Ultrasound and Cellulolytic Enzymes on the Structural and Functional Properties of Citrus grandis Osbeck Seed Mucilage

The structural and functional properties of Citrus grandis Osbeck (CGO) seed mucilage by different extraction practices, including conventional citrate buffer, ultrasonic-assisted (UAE), enzymatic-assisted extraction (EAE) with cellulase or Celluclast® 1.5 L and various ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction (UAEE) procedures were investigated. It was found that CGO seed from agricultural and processing byproducts is an excellent new source of high methoxyl pectin with quite high intrinsic viscosity (about 108.64 dL/g) and molecular weight (about 1.9 × 106) as compared with other pectin sources. UAEE with Celluclast® 1.5 L enhanced the extraction yield most pronouncedly (about 2.3 times). Moreover, the monosaccharide composition of CGO seed mucilage is least affected by EAE with Celluclast® 1.5 L. In contrast, EAE with cellulase dramatically reduces the galacturonic acid (GalA) content to less than 60 molar%, and increases the glucose (Glc) content pronouncedly (to about 40 molar%), which may be considered as an adverse effect in terms of pectin purity. Though extraction procedures involved with ultrasound and cellulolytic enzymes generally show a decrease in GalA contents, weight average molar mass and intrinsic viscosity, EAE with Celluclast® 1.5 L is least affected, followed by UAE and UAEE with Celluclast® 1.5 L. These features can be leveraged in favor of diversified applications.

Physicochemical properties, antioxidant activities and α-glucosidase inhibitory effects of polysaccharides from Evodiae fructus extracted by different solvents

In this study, polysaccharides from Evodiae fructus were extracted by water, 0.5 M HCl, 0.5 M NaOH, water + 0.5 M HCl and water + 0.5 M NaOH, which were named as ERP-W, ERP-AC, ERP-AK, ERP-W-AC and ERP-W-AK, respectively. Their physicochemical properties, antioxidant activities and α-glucosidase inhibitory effects were investigated and compared. Physico-chemical analysis showed that they were acidic heteropolysaccharides, which had α- and β-configurations. ERP-W, ERP-AK and ERP-W-AK were mainly composed of Rha, Ara, Gal, Glc and Gal-UA, while ERP-AC and ERP-W-AC were dominantly made up of Rha, Gal and Gal-UA. ERP-AK had the highest yield (24.5%) and the best thermal stability, ERP-AC and ERP-W-AC showed better homogeneity and lower molecular weight (83.6 and 41.6 kDa), and ERP-W possessed the highest neutral sugar content (50.7%) and molecular weight. Biological evaluation indicated that ERP-W, ERP-AK and ERP-W-AK had relatively stronger antioxidant activities, including ABTS, DPPH, OH and O₂^- radicals scavenging activities, Fe²⁺ chelating ability and α-glucosidase inhibitory effects. Moreover, these actions were considerably related to their physicochemical properties especially monosaccharide composition and molecular weight. Therefore, polysaccharides extracted by water and alkaline solvents from Evodiae fructus could be developed as promising natural antioxidants and α-glucosidase inhibitors in the food and medicine industries.

Sanziguben polysaccharides inhibit diabetic nephropathy through NF-κB-mediated anti-inflammation

Background

Sanziguben polysaccharides (SZP) are large amounts of classical Chinese medicines from Sanziguben (SZGB). Moreover, SZGB is a widely applied compound prescription for diabetic nephropathy (DN) treatment, but the role is still unclear. This study initially explores the mechanism of SZP in the treatment of DN.

Methods

The high-fat diet plus streptozotocin injections were used to replicate the DN models in male C57BL/6 mice. DN mice were divided into five groups: DN mice, DN mice treated with SZP(1.01 or 2.02 g/kg), DN mice treated with SZGB decoction(4.7 g/kg), and DN mice treated with metformin (300 mg/kg). HG and LPS plus TNFα stimulated human tubule epithelial (HK-2) cells to establish an in vitro model and treated with SZP (100 or 200 μg/mL).

Results

SZP was found to comprise sugar, protein, and uronic acid. Furthermore, SZP alleviated the progression of inflammation in vivo and in vitro by inhibiting the expression of NF-κB.

Conclusions

NF-κB plays a critical role in the development of DN induced by STZ and HG. Furthermore, SZP can attenuate the NF-κB‐mediated progression of diabetic nephropathy, improve DN through anti-inflammation.

Extraction of Pb(II) from wheat samples via dual-frequency ultrasound-assisted enzymatic digestion and the mechanisms of its interactions with wheat proteins

A novel dual-frequency ultrasound-assisted enzymatic digestion (DUED) technique was used to extract Pb(II) from certified reference materials (CRMs) of wheat flour. Following this, the interactions of Pb(II) with wheat proteins were investigated to provide evidence for the selection of enzyme species. The results showed that the simultaneous use of α-amylase and flavourzyme resulted in the recovery of 97.9% of Pb(II) in 6 min under a 40 kHz ultrasonic bath combined with a 20 kHz ultrasonic probe. The exopeptidase activity of the flavourzyme was found to be the main contributor to the extraction of Pb(II) from the CRMs. Additionally, the proposed method exhibited a low detection limit (8.2 ng/g) and high recoveries of real samples (93.4%-112.2%) with RSD less than 7.33%. Furthermore, the oxygen-containing groups of wheat proteins, the nitrogen-containing groups of albumins and globulins, and the sulfur-containing groups of gliadins and glutenins were found to offer coordination sites for Pb(II).

Polysaccharides-based bio-nanostructures and their potential food applications

Polysaccharides are omnipresent biomolecules that hold great potential as promising biomaterials for a myriad of applications in various biotechnological and industrial sectors. The presence of diverse functional groups renders them tailorable functionalities for preparing a multitude of novel bio-nanostructures. Further, they are biocompatible and biodegradable, hence, considered as environmentally friendly biopolymers. Application of nanotechnology in food science has shown many advantages in improving food quality and enhancing its shelf life. Recently, considerable efforts have been made to develop polysaccharide-based nanostructures for possible food applications. Therefore, it is of immense importance to explore literature on polysaccharide-based nanostructures delineating their food application potentialities. Herein, we reviewed the developments in polysaccharide-based bio-nanostructures and highlighted their potential applications in food preservation and bioactive "smart" food packaging. We categorized these bio-nanostructures into polysaccharide-based nanoparticles, nanocapsules, nanocomposites, dendrimeric nanostructures, and metallo-polysaccharide hybrids. This review demonstrates that the polysaccharides are emerging biopolymers, gaining much attention as robust biomaterials with excellent tuneable properties.

Enzymatic-fingerprinting workflow of polysaccharides in Hericium erinaceus fruiting bodies: From HILIC-ESI--MS screening to targeted MIM profiling

In this study, an uncommon enzymatic-fingerprinting workflow, was proposed for characterization and discrimination of mushroom polysaccharides (MPs) by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-negative electrospray mass spectrometry (HILIC-ESI^--MS). Firstly, the HILIC-ESI^--MS was used to screen and identify the enzymatic digestion products of MPs using HILIC-Orbitrap based on full scan and MS/MS modes. Secondly, a targeted structural-fingerprinting of polysaccharides (SFP) was built in a multiple-ion monitoring (MIM) mode using the same HILIC separation with a triple quadrupole MS. Thirdly, a case study of polysaccharides in Hericium erinaceus fruiting bodies (HEP) was performed to obtain the expected SFP based on dextranase digestion that allows for visual discrimination of polysaccharides from other five edible mushrooms attributed to Agrocybe cylindracea, Arimillaria mellea, Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus eryngii, and Lentinula edodes. Furthermore, a major structural backbone of HEP was unveiled by occurrence of → ⁶(Hex)¹ → along with multiple possible substitutions including of terminal GalA, Fuc, acetyl, → ⁴Hex¹ →, and → ³Hex¹ →. Finally, the similarity analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were performed to visualize various MPs. As a result, the enzymatic-fingerprinting workflow presents an effective example for quality evaluation of fungi polysaccharides using a SFP strategy.

The effect of enzymatically treated ripe banana flour on the sensory quality and glycemic response of banana-wheat flour composite muffins

Banana are the most consumed fruit worldwide, due to their good flavour and nutritional characteristics; however, when the banana is very or over ripe, the acceptability by the consumer decreases, and in many cases the fruit must be discarded. An alternative to consume these fruits and revalue these discards is their use as a food ingredient. The presence of bioactive compounds gives added value to this type of ingredients; therefore, using methods, such as enzymatic treatment, that increase their presence is of great interest. In this work a commercial pectinase (Viscozyme L) was applied in a flour produced from whole overripe banana; then, the treated flour was used to elaborate a baked product. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of the incorporation of an enzymatic treated overripe banana (Musa cavendishii) flour in the sensory evaluation of muffins and, to stablish if the consumption of this food produce an effect on glycaemic response against a control food. The enzyme application produces an increment of 52% of antioxidant activity with a value of 12,791.6 μmolTE/100 g, and a presence of 4.5% RS instead 3.5% in non-treated flour. The sensory evaluation study was conducted with 4 products, using an untrained panel; selecting a muffin with 50% of wheat flour replaced with the banana treated one. This one contains 9.49% of dietary fibre. The glycaemic response study was conducted with 20 healthy volunteers, using as control a 100% wheat flour product, non-observing significant differences between both products. This work contributes to the knowledge about the potential use of a food discard as an ingredient of a food of massive consumption.

Aqueous enzymatic extraction of rosmarinic acid from Salvia officinalis: optimisation using response surface methodology

INTRODUCTION

Rosmarinic acid is a bioactive compound with various pharmaceutical effects and applications.

OBJECTIVE

This work developed a new approach for aqueous enzymatic extraction of rosmarinic acid from the leaves of Salvia officinalis.

METHODS

Different enzymes (proteases and cellulase) were evaluated for their extraction activity. Response surface methodology (RSM) was subsequently employed to optimise the extraction conditions. Thin layer chromatography was also used to identify rosmarinic acid in the extract of S. officinalis.

RESULTS

Among the tested enzymes, a Cellulase A and Protamex mixture (1:1, w/w) exhibited maximum effectiveness in the extraction. Through the use of RSM, the maximum rosmarinic acid content of 28.23 ± 0.41 mg/g was obtained with enzyme loading of 4.49%, water-to-sample ratio of 25.76 mL/g, temperature of 54.3°C, and extraction time of 2 h.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that S. officinalis is a promising source of rosmarinic acid and aqueous enzymatic extraction is an efficient and ecofriendly method for extracting rosmarinic acid, with a short extraction time and without the contamination of a toxic solvent.

Microwave-assisted extraction, characterization and immunomodulatory activity on RAW264.7 cells of polysaccharides from Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim seeds

Microwave-assisted extraction of polysaccharides from Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim seeds (TKMSP) was optimized using Response surface methodology (RSM) base on Central composite design (CCD). The optimum extraction conditions are detailed as follows: liquid-solid ratio 42 mL/g, extraction temperature 80 °C, microwave power 570 W, extraction time 26 min. Under this conditions, the mean value of TKMSP yield 2.43 ± 0.45% (n = 3), which was consistent closely with the predicted value (2.44%). The five polysaccharides (TKMSP-1, TKMSP-2, TKMSP-3, TKMSP-4 and TKMSP-5) were isolated from TKMSP by DEAE-52. TKMSP-1, TKMSP-2 and TKMSP-4 were common in containing Man, Rib, Rha, GluA, GalA, Glu, Gal, Xyl, Arab and Fuc. However, there was no Fuc in TKMSP-3, while TKMSP-5 lacked GluA, GalA and Fuc. UV–vis and FT-IR analysis combined with molecular weight determination further indicated that the five fractions were polydisperse polysaccharides. A significant difference was achieved in the structural characterization of these five fractions. TKMSP exhibited immunosuppressive activity on RAW264.7 cells. It can be applied as a potential immunosuppressant agent in medicine.

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Microwave-assisted extraction of TKMSP optimized by RSM base on CCD.

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The five polydisperse polysaccharides were isolated from TKMSP.

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The structure characterizations of the five polysaccharides were analyzed.

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TKMSP-3 exhibited significant inhibition of RAW264.7 proliferation.

Preparation of newly identified polysaccharide from Pleurotus eryngii and its anti-inflammation activities potential

The anti-inflammatory effects of two newly identified Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides (WPEP, NPEP) were determined in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages in this study. Characterization analysis revealed that molecular weights of WPEP and NPEP were 167 and 274 kDa, and were mainly composed of glucose with β-type glycosidic linkages. WPEP and NPEP could significantly inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory responses by regulating the production of NO, Protaglandin E2 (PGE₂ ), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). This was through the blocking of the activation of Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway by inhibiting phosphorylation of p38, extracellular regulation of protein kinases 1/2, and stress-activated protein kinase/jun aminoterminal kinase. Moreover, WPEP and NPEP inhibited NF-κB signaling by reducing nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of p65. Overall, our results, for the first time identified two P. eryngii polysaccharides and demonstrated the related anti-inflammatory effects, which indicated the favorable potential of P. eryngii polysaccharide as specific functional foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study prepared and characterized newly identified Pleurotus eryngii water-soluble polysaccharide fractions and elucidated the nutritional benefits, mainly the immune response related to anti-inflammatory activities by utilizing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Collectively, results of this study suggested that the P. eryngii polysaccharide fractions could be considered as potential candidates for exploration in the development of new immunomodulatory agent or functional supplementary foods.

A comparison of a polysaccharide extracted from ginger (Zingiber officinale) stems and leaves using different methods: preparation, structure characteristics, and biological activities

This study investigates how extraction method impacts the yield, chemical composition, structure characteristics, hypoglycemic and antioxidant activity of polysaccharides from ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) stems and leaves (GSLP). Four extraction methods were employed to obtain the GSLP, including hot water extraction (HWE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), alkaline solution extraction (ASE), and enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE). The data showed that ASE produced highest extraction yield compared to the other extraction methods. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that GSLP microstructures were greatly influenced by extraction method. Moreover, in vitro hypoglycemic activity and antioxidant activity experiments demonstrated that the biological capacities of ASE-GSLP were superior to GSLPs extracted by the other methods. Taken together, these results indicate that polysaccharides from ginger stems and leaves obtained by alkali, complex enzyme, and ultrasonic-assisted extractions are imbued with different characteristic mechanisms of degradation, despite the uniformity of their main structures. In addition, ASE-GSLP displayed better biological activities probably due to its abundant uronic acid content, higher sulfate radical, and smaller molecular weight. Thus, it can be concluded that ASE has great potential as an effective strategy for obtaining polysaccharides from stems and leaves because of its higher yield and the remarkable bioactivity of its products.

The applicability of using a protease extracted from cashew fruits (Anacardium occidentale), as possible meat tenderizer: An experimental design approach

Meat tenderness is one of the most important organoleptic properties in determining consumer acceptance in meat product marketability. Therefore, an effective meat tenderization method is sought after by exploring plant-derived proteolytic enzymes as meat tenderizer. In this study, a novel protease from Cashew was identified as a new alternative halal meat tenderizer. The extraction of cashew protease was optimized using response surface methodology (R² = 0.9803) by varying pH, CaCl₂ concentration, mixing time, and mass. pH 6.34, 7.92 mM CaCl₂ concentration, 5.51 min mixing time, and 19.24 g sample mass were the optimal extraction conditions. There was no significant difference (n = 3; p < 0.05) between the calculated (6.302 units/ml) and experimental (6.493 ± 0.229 units/ml) protease activity. The ascending order of the effects was pH < mixing time < CaCl₂  < sample mass. In meat tenderizing application, the meat samples treated with 9% (v/w) crude protease extract obtained the lowest shear force (1.38 ± 0.25 N) to cause deformation on the meat. An electrophoretic analysis showed that protein bands above ~49.8 kDa were completely degraded into protein bands below ~22.4 kDa. Scanning electron microscopy shows the disruption of the muscle fibers after being treated by the Cashew protease. The results of this study show the Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) crude extract can be used as an alternative of the animal and microbial protease as meat tenderizer and subsequently overcome the shortcoming of the halal industrial protease.

Optimization of extraction parameters of Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides and evaluation of the hypolipidemic effect

The hot water extraction of polysaccharides from the fruiting body of Pleurotus eryngii was studied. In this paper, according to single-factor experiments, a response surface methodology and the Box–Behnken design were applied to optimize the extraction parameters of Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides (PEP). The optimal extraction conditions were as follows: a temperature of 79 °C, a time of 3.11 h, a ratio of water to fruiting bodies of 52.6 mL g⁻¹. Under these parameters, the yield of PEP was 7.53%. When mice with hyperlipidemia were administered low, medium or high doses of PEP, their body weight was reduced compared with the model group, and the degree of weight loss was proportional to the dose. At the 16th week of PEP treatment, blood lipid biochemical parameters such as total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase levels were all decreased. However, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels increased after PEP treatment. Histopathological examination of the liver showed that low, medium and high doses of PEP had a certain liver protective effect. High-dose PEP treatment had the best effect in regard to lipid-lowering and liver protection. In addition, the metabolome of the mice was analyzed by LC-MS, and the results indicated that C16 sphinganine can be used as a potential biomarker, which displayed significant differences among the six groups. In conclusion, the possible metabolic mechanism of the PEP on lipid-lowering was closely related to sphingolipid metabolism.

The hot water extraction of polysaccharides from the fruiting body of Pleurotus eryngii was studied.

Innovative Approaches for Recovery of Phytoconstituents from Medicinal/Aromatic Plants and Biotechnological Production

Continuously growing demand for plant derived therapeutic molecules obtained in a sustainable and eco-friendly manner favors biotechnological production and development of innovative extraction techniques to obtain phytoconstituents. What is more, improving and optimization of alternative techniques for the isolation of high value natural compounds are issues having both social and economic importance. In this critical review, the aspects regarding plant biotechnology and green downstream processing, leading to the production and extraction of increased levels of fine chemicals from both plant cell, tissue, and organ culture or fresh plant materials and the remaining by-products, are discussed.