Active bilayer films of thermoplastic starch and polycaprolactone obtained by compression molding

Lignin reinforced eco-friendly and functional nanoarchitectonics materials with tailored interfacial barrier performance

Exploring innovative and sustainable routes for the production of biodegradable biomass-based materials is critical to promote a circular carbon economy and carbon neutrality goals. Fossil-based non-biodegradable plastic waste poses a nonnegligible threat to humans and the ecological environment, and biomass-based functional materials are becoming increasingly viable alternatives. Lignin, a naturally occurring macromolecular polymer, is green and renewable resource rich in aromatic rings, with biodegradability, biocompatibility, and excellent processability for eco-friendly composites. Moreover, versatile and high tunable lignins can be valorized into functional materials, which are crucial building blocks in the fabrication of biomass-derived composites. Lignin's unique chemical structure, solvent resistance, anti-aging, and anti-ultraviolet functional properties make it highly potential for the fabrication of sustainable biobased barrier materials. This review systematically summarizes the progress in the fabrication and application of lignin-based functional composites, with a particular focus on barrier materials. First, the structural diversity of lignins from different sources and fractionation methods, and the structural modification strategies of lignins are briefly introduced. Then, the multiple barrier performances of lignin-based composites are listed, and the fabrication methods of different composites based on the polymer matrix systems are elaborated. In terms of diverse applications, this review highlights the multifaceted barrier properties of lignin-based composites in oxygen barrier, water vapor barrier, ultraviolet barrier, flame retardant and antibacterial applications. These functional barrier materials are widely used in food/pharmaceutical packaging, agricultural protection, construction, etc., providing an excellent option for sustainable materials with high barrier performance requirements. Finally, the main challenges faced by lignin-based barrier materials and the future directions are proposed.

Optimization of biocomposite taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) starch and Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis (L.) Burm.f.) gel based film-using response surface methodology

This study aimed to develop and optimize a biocomposite film using taro starch and aloe vera gel blends. A Single factor experiment followed by a three-factor Box-Behnken design (BBD) of response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the film based on water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), tensile strength (TS), and thickness as response factors. Results showed that increasing taro starch content generally increased tensile strength but also increased WVTR. Meanwhile, aloe vera gel reduced the WVTR but had a less significant effect on TS. Glycerol worked as a plasticizer, decreasing the TS but significantly reducing the WVTR. The regression model's prediction was confirmed by characterizing the biocomposite film made using the optimal composition, which had water vapor transmission rate, tensile strengths, and thicknesses of 0.00163 g/m2t, 3.26 MPa, and 0.14 mm, respectively. This optimal composition is achievable with 5.56 % taro starch, 49.25 % aloe vera gel, and 25.00 % glycerol, resulting in a biocomposite film with low WVTR and moderate TS. The biocomposite film prepared using the optimized independent factors was also characterized by different analytical techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The findings show that FTIR analysis detects the critical functional groups such as OH, CH, and CO that contribute to the biocomposite film's structure and properties. SEM analysis illustrates a rough surface, presenting dispersed particles and some cracks that reflect the mechanical properties of the film obtained. DSC showed that the biocomposite film exhibited a glass transition temperature and a gelatinization peak, highlighting the thermal behavior of the biocomposite film. Thus, the optimized biocomposite film can be a potential candidate for food packaging applications.

Improving Thermo-Sealing of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) by Blending with Polycaprolactone

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) is a biodegradable biopolymer from the PHAs family that has potential to replace conventional plastics and reduce plastic pollution. However, PHBV has thermo-sealability issues, making it challenging to use for bags. Blending it with polycaprolactone (PCL) could address this but may alter the barrier properties of the films, affecting their effectiveness as food packaging material. This study examined the properties and heat-sealing capacity of PHBV/PCL blend films (ratios: 60/40, 50/50, and 40/60), obtained by melt blending and compression moulding. Both polymers are immiscible and were in separated phases; the continuous phase was PHBV in the 60/40 blend and PCL in the 40/60 blend, while the 50/50 sample exhibited interpenetrating bicontinuous phases of both polymers. The permeability to water vapour, oxygen, and D-limonene increased as the PCL content rose, especially when it formed the continuous phase in the matrix. The elastic modulus and resistance to break decreased, while extensibility increased, more markedly when PCL was the continuous phase. However, the continuity of PCL phase provided the films with better thermal adhesion and seal strength. The 50/50 blend showed the best balance between heat sealability and barrier properties, making it the most suitable for food packaging in sealed bags.

A comprehensive review on starch: Structure, modification, and applications in slow/controlled-release fertilizers in agriculture

This comprehensive review thoroughly examines starch's structure, modifications, and applications in slow/controlled-release fertilizers (SRFs) for agricultural purposes. The review begins by exploring starch's unique structure and properties, providing insights into its molecular arrangement and physicochemical characteristics. Various methods of modifying starch, including physical, chemical, and enzymatic techniques, are discussed, highlighting their ability to impart desirable properties such as controlled release and improved stability. The review then focuses on the applications of starch in the development of SRFs. It emphasizes the role of starch-based hydrogels as effective nutrient carriers, enabling their sustained release to plants over extended periods. Additionally, incorporating starch-based hydrogel nano-composites are explored, highlighting their potential in optimizing nutrient release profiles and promoting plant growth. Furthermore, the review highlights the benefits of starch-based fertilizers in enhancing plant growth and crop yield while minimizing nutrient losses. It presents case studies and field trials demonstrating starch-based formulations' efficacy in promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Overall, this review consolidates current knowledge on starch, its modifications, and its applications in SRFs, providing valuable insights into the potential of starch-based formulations to improve nutrient management, boost crop productivity, and support sustainable agriculture.

A Review of Biodegradable Plastics: Chemistry, Applications, Properties, and Future Research Needs

Environmental concerns over waste plastics' effect on the environment are leading to the creation of biodegradable plastics. Biodegradable plastics may serve as a promising approach to manage the issue of environmental accumulation of plastic waste in the ocean and soil. Biodegradable plastics are the type of polymers that can be degraded by microorganisms into small molecules (e.g., H2O, CO2, and CH4). However, there are misconceptions surrounding biodegradable plastics. For example, the term "biodegradable" on product labeling can be misconstrued by the public to imply that the product will degrade under any environmental conditions. Such misleading information leads to consumer encouragement of excessive consumption of certain goods and increased littering of products labeled as "biodegradable". This review not only provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art biodegradable plastics but also clarifies the definitions and various terms associated with biodegradable plastics, including oxo-degradable plastics, enzyme-mediated plastics, and biodegradation agents. Analytical techniques and standard test methods to evaluate the biodegradability of polymeric materials in alignment with international standards are summarized. The review summarizes the properties and industrial applications of previously developed biodegradable plastics and then discusses how biomass-derived monomers can create new types of biodegradable polymers by utilizing their unique chemical properties from oxygen-containing functional groups. The terminology and methodologies covered in the paper provide a perspective on directions for the design of new biodegradable polymers that possess not only advanced performance for practical applications but also environmental benefits.

Encapsulating biocontrol bacteria with starch as a safe and edible biopolymer to alleviate plant diseases: A review

Healthy foods with few artificial additives are in high demand among consumers. Preserving conventional pesticides, frequently used as chemicals to control phytopathogens, is challenging. Therefore, we proposed an innovative approach to protect agricultural products in this review. Biocontrol bacteria are safe alternatives with low stability and low efficiency in the free-form formulation. The encapsulation technique for covering active compounds (e.g., antimicrobials) represents a more efficient protection technology because encapsulation causes the controlled release of bioactive materials and reduces the application doses. Of the biopolymers able to form a capsule, starch exhibits several advantages, such as its ready availability, cost-effectively, edible, colorless, and tasteless. Nevertheless, the poor mechanical properties of starch can be improved with other edible biopolymers. In addition, applying formulations incorporated with more than one antimicrobial material offers synergistic effects. This review presented the starch-based capsules used to enclose antimicrobial agents as effective tools against phytopathogens.

Active Starch-Polyester Bilayer Films with Surface-Incorporated Ferulic Acid

Bilayer films of cassava starch-based (with 10% gellan gum) and polylactic (PLA): Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) polyester blend (with 75% PLA) monolayers were obtained by melt-blending and compression-molding, and the subsequent thermocompressing of both monolayers. Ferulic acid (FA) was incorporated into the polyester sheet by spraying and drying. Films were characterized in terms of their microstructure and functional properties throughout two months of storage at 25 °C and 53% relative humidity. The laminates exhibited improved tensile and barrier properties compared to the respective monolayers, which makes them more adequate for food packaging purposes. Surface incorporation of ferulic acid did not significantly modify the barrier and mechanical properties of the films while providing them with antioxidant and antibacterial capacity when applied in aqueous systems, where a complete release of active compounds occurred. The physical properties of the bilayers and layer thermo-sealing were stable throughout storage. Likewise, the antioxidant and antimicrobial active properties were preserved throughout storage. Therefore, these active bilayers represent a sustainable packaging alternative to non-biodegradable, non-recyclable synthetic laminates for food packaging purposes, which could extend the shelf-life of food due to their antioxidant and antibacterial properties.

Recent Advances in Chemically Modified Cellulose and Its Derivatives for Food Packaging Applications: A Review

The application of cellulose in the food packaging field has gained increasing attention in recent years, driven by the desire for sustainable products. Cellulose can replace petroleum-based plastics because it can be converted to biodegradable and nontoxic polymers from sustainable natural resources. These products have increasingly been used as coatings, self-standing films, and paperboards in food packaging, owing to their promising mechanical and barrier properties. However, their utilization is limited because of the high hydrophilicity of cellulose. With the presence of a large quantity of functionalities within pristine cellulose and its derivatives, these building blocks provide a unique platform for chemical modification via covalent functionalization to introduce stable and permanent functionalities to cellulose. A primary aim of chemical attachment is to reduce the probability of component leaching in wet and softened conditions and to improve the aqueous, oil, water vapor, and oxygen barriers, thereby extending its specific use in the food packaging field. However, chemical modification may affect the desirable mechanical, thermal stabilities and biodegradability exhibited by pristine cellulose. This review exhaustively reports the research progress on cellulose chemical modification techniques and prospective applications of chemically modified cellulose for use in food packaging, including active packaging.

Effects of Modified Thermoplastic Starch on Crystallization Kinetics and Barrier Properties of PLA

This study reports on using reactive extrusion (REX) modified thermoplastic starch particles as a bio-based and biodegradable nucleating agent to increase the rate of crystallization, percent crystallinity and improve oxygen barrier properties while maintaining the biodegradability of PLA. Reactive blends of maleated thermoplastic starch (MTPS) and PLA were prepared using a ZSK-30 twin-screw extruder; 80% glycerol was grafted on the starch during the preparation of MTPS as determined by soxhlet extraction with acetone. The crystallinity of PLA was found to increase from 7.7% to 28.6% with 5% MTPS. The crystallization temperature of PLA reduced from 113 °C to 103 °C. Avrami analysis of the blends showed that the crystallization rate increased 98-fold and t_1/2 was reduced drastically from 20 min to <1 min with the addition of 5% MTPS compared to neat PLA. Observation from POM confirmed that the presence of MTPS in the PLA matrix significantly increased the rate of formation and density of spherulites. Oxygen and water vapor permeabilities of the solvent-casted PLA/MTPS films were reduced by 33 and 19% respectively over neat PLA without causing any detrimental impacts on the mechanical properties (α = 0.05). The addition of MTPS to PLA did not impact the biodegradation of PLA in an aqueous environment.

Bio-based multilayer films: A review of the principal methods of production and challenges

The development of biodegradable packaging materials has been drawing attention worldwide to minimize the environmental impact of traditional petroleum-based plastics. Nevertheless, it is challenging to obtain bio-based materials with suitable properties for packaging applications. Films produced from a single biopolymer often lack some important properties. An alternative to overcome this limitation is the multilayer assembly. Under this technology, two or more materials with specific and complementary properties are combined into a single-layered structure, thus improving the performance of bio-polymer plastics. This review presents the main aspects of bio-based multilayer film production technologies, discussing their advantages and disadvantages, which have to be considered to produce the most suitable film for each specific application. Most of the studies reported that such films resulted in increased mechanical performance and decreased water, oxygen, and dioxide carbon permeability. This approach allows the addition of compounds leading to antioxidant or antibacterial activity. Finally, a discussion about the future challenges is also presented.

Application of plant natural products for the management of postharvest diseases in fruits

Prevention of postharvest losses has been a very important concern in the scientific world for many centuries, since adoption of an effective means to curtail such losses is believed to help in reaching sustainability in horticultural production and prevention of hunger around the world. The main means of deterioration in fruits, which may occur after harvest, include physiological changes/losses, physical losses, biochemical changes, changes in enzymatic activities and pathological deterioration. Among these, diseases cover the most important part; the losses due to diseases range from 5% to 20%, and this figure may extend up to >50% in the cases of certain susceptible cultivars. Fungicides have been the most important tool for the management of postharvest diseases for many years, together with hygiene, cold storage and packaging. However, due to the scientifically confirmed hazards of agro-chemicals on environment and human health, the acceptability of agro-chemicals decreased and scientists turned their attention towards natural alternatives. Most tropical and subtropical fruits contain a superficial cuticle, which helps them to regulate respiration and transpiration and protects against microbial decay. However, the waxy cuticle is generally being removed or damaged during washing or other handling practices. Therefore, the application of protective coatings (including wax) has been used in the fruit industry since the twelfth century, against microbial decay and for maintaining an acceptable standard of postharvest quality. This review aims to summarise and discuss the main natural products used for this purpose, to provide a broad-in-scope guide to farmers and the fruit storage sector.

Epoxidised sesame oil as a biobased coupling agent and plasticiser in polylactic acid/thermoplastic yam starch blends

This work aims to improve the physicochemical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) and thermoplastic yam starch (TPS) blends using epoxidised sesame oil (ESO). We used epoxidised sesame oil from two Colombian Caribbean crops: Dioscorea rotundata and Sesamum indicum, with an oil substitution of 58.4 %. Films were obtained through extrusion and compression moulding processes. Moisture content, solubility, contact angle, and mechanical, barrier, and structural properties were determined using optical and scanning electron microscopy, infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy. Thermal analyses were also performed using thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry techniques. The results suggest that the PLA and TPS interactions can be improved with the addition of ESO as coupling agent, enhancing the interfacial adhesion between the polymers, and favouring the smoothness of the film surface. Furthermore, the ESO addition led to increased thermal stability while restricting molecular mobility, indicating a coupling agent effect. In conclusion, the use of epoxidised oil for preparing films based on high PLA content and TPS allows obtaining enhanced interfacial adhesion. Considering the above, the developed materials have potential application in semi-rigid food packaging.

Biodegradable sandwich-architectured films derived from pea starch and polylactic acid with enhanced shelf-life for fruit preservation

The development of biopolymer films is crucial for the replacement of conventional plastics. Tremendous effort is made to improve their performances by introducing biopolymers through the film manufacturing process. Herein, a sandwich-architectured film was proposed to efficiently improve the adhesion between the PS and PLA layers by using octenyl succinic anhydride-modified pea starch (OMPS) layer as the interlayer, leading to a highly mechanically enhanced interpenetrating network. Accordingly, the properties of the films were enhanced due to the synergism effect of sandwich architecture. In particular, the WVP value of the sandwich-architectured films (0.25 ∼ 0.89×10-10g·m-1·s-1·Pa-1) decreased more than 7-fold compared with the OMPS20 film, and the OP value of the sandwich-architectured films (0.256 ∼ 1.229×10-12cm3·m·m-2·s-1·Pa-1) decreased more than 10-fold in comparison to the PLA film. Benefitting from the characteristics investigated above, the films exhibited a favorable effect on strawberry storage. Overall, the fabricated eco-friendly sandwich-architectured films have shown great potential for biodegradable packaging applications.

Effect of storage condition on the physico-chemical properties of corn-wheat starch/zein edible bilayer films

The functional properties of biopolymer-based film packaging materials are susceptible to external storage conditions. The effects of different storage temperature, relative humidity (RH) and duration on the apparent form, barrier properties, mechanical properties and microstructure of corn-wheat starch/zein bilayer films were studied. From 0 to 150 days, storage temperature and RH, but not storage time, affected the appearance and colour of the bilayer films. The increase in haze of the bilayer films stored at 25°C was much greater than that at low temperatures. With increased storage time, the moisture content first increased and then decreased, while the water resistance and oxygen barrier properties of the bilayer films worsened. After 150 days, the bilayer film stored at 25°C with 54% RH had better water resistance properties. The oxygen barrier properties of the bilayer film stored at 25°C with 43% RH were preferable to those of other groups because the peroxide value of vegetable oil packed in the former bilayer film was the lowest. The tensile strength of bilayer films stored at 25°C with RH of 43, 54 and 65% decreased, but was still better than those stored at low temperatures (-17°C, 4°C), which were tough due to their high elongation at break. Scanning electron microscopy results showed tight bonds between the bilayer films, and the network structure inside the films disappeared and reappeared during storage. The cross-sectional compactness changed, and there was no film separation after 150 days.

Nanocomposite bilayers based on poly(vinyl alcohol) and chitosan functionalized with gallic acid

The development of active bilayer systems is a novel strategy for the application of active packaging to maintain or prolong the shelf-life of food products. A bilayer system was assembled in situ into a thermocompression unit through a two-step procedure. One of the layers was obtained by a casting process and consisted of a chitosan-based nanocomposite functionalized with gallic acid (GA); the other was shaped by the spreading of polyvinyl alcohol solution on the nanocomposite. Then, a stage of thermocompression formed the bilayer system. In this way, a feasible material with water vapor and oxygen barrier as well as UV barrier properties due to the presence of GA was designed by a thermocompression process which can be industrially scaled representing a technological progress. The formation of the bilayers was corroborated by SEM allowing discerning between both, the PVA layer and the nanocomposite layer. On the other hand, the corroboration of interactions between the layers of the system was carried out through ATR-FTIR and DSC analysis. The system was used as packaging of a food susceptible to undergo oxidation such as walnut flour, generating a delay in the formation of hydroperoxides and secondary oxidation compounds compared with a synthetic container. These results indicated that bilayer materials can be useful for the conservation of this type of foods.

Development and characterization of bilayer films based on pea starch/polylactic acid and use in the cherry tomatoes packaging

Renewable and biodegradable packaging materials are desired for numerous applications. Pea starch (PS) and polylactic acid (PLA) are promising alternatives to petrochemical-based polymers except that their phase separation causes poor mechanical properties. To surmount this problem, PS/PLA films with a double-layer structure were designed. The bilayer films displayed better toughness, thermal stability and barrier capacity over those of PLA films. The incorporation of PLA on a PS layer increased water resistance and tensile strength over those of a monolayer PS film. Weak interfacial adhesion between the PS and PLA layers was revealed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The bilayer films reduced weight loss ratio of cherry tomatoes and extended the retention of organic acids and vitamin C. A bilayer architecture represents a promising route to develop packaging materials that display the advantageous properties of each material layer.

Effects of ultrasonic/microwave-assisted treatment on the properties of corn distarch phosphate/corn straw cellulose films and structure characterization

Edible films were casted using aqueous solutions of corn distarch phosphate (CDP, 3 wt%) and corn straw cellulose (CSC, 0.5 wt%). The effects of ultrasonic, microwave and ultrasonic/microwave-assisted treatment on mechanical properties and light transmittance, as well as the water vapour permeability (WVP) of edible films, were evaluated. It was found that corn distarch phosphate/corn straw cellulose (CDP/CSC) films treated using ultrasonic waves/microwaves for a certain condition has a distinct increase in tensile strength, elongation at break and light transmittance and a drastic decrease in WVP. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that the surface and cross-section morphology of CDP/CSC films after ultrasonic/microwave-assisted treatment were smoother, denser and without a notable phase separation compared with control films. The results of mechanical properties and barrier properties were in agreement with the changes in molecular interactions detected by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis. These findings indicate that ultrasonic/microwave-assisted treatment can improve the application of biodegradable films.

Combination of Poly(lactic) Acid and Starch for Biodegradable Food Packaging

The massive use of synthetic plastics, in particular in the food packaging area, has a great environmental impact, and alternative more ecologic materials are being required. Poly(lactic) acid (PLA) and starch have been extensively studied as potential replacements for non-degradable petrochemical polymers on the basis of their availability, adequate food contact properties and competitive cost. Nevertheless, both polymers exhibit some drawbacks for packaging uses and need to be adapted to the food packaging requirements. Starch, in particular, is very water sensitive and its film properties are heavily dependent on the moisture content, exhibiting relatively low mechanical resistance. PLA films are very brittle and offer low resistance to oxygen permeation. Their combination as blend or multilayer films could provide properties that are more adequate for packaging purposes on the basis of their complementary characteristics. The main characteristics of PLA and starch in terms of not only the barrier and mechanical properties of their films but also of their combinations, by using blending or multilayer strategies, have been analyzed, identifying components or processes that favor the polymer compatibility and the good performance of the combined materials. The properties of some blends/combinations have been discussed in comparison with those of pure polymer films.

Effect of Incorporation Nanocrystalline Corn Straw Cellulose and Polyethylene Glycol on Properties of Biodegradable Films

This work aimed to study the effect of nanocrystalline corn straw cellulose (NCSC) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) on the properties of biodegradable corn distarch phosphate (CDP) films. The mechanical properties and barrier properties were investigated. Meanwhile, the compatibility, crystallization, thermal stability, and morphological structure of the films were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (X-RD), thermogravimetric (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In contrast with the CDP films, incorporation of NCSC in the films improved their tensile strength (TS) significantly, and incorporation of PEG improved their elongation at break (EAB) significantly else. PEG, CDP, and NCSC (P-CDP/NCSC) blend films had the best barrier properties. The thermal stability of the films was increased by the incorporation of NCSC. X-RD showed that CDP and NCSC (CDP/NCSC) films had higher crystallinity. SEM revealed that all films had smooth surface, while the films presented a uniform network structure through the incorporation of NCSC.

Polysaccharide-Based Membranes in Food Packaging Applications

Plastic packaging is essential nowadays. However, the huge environmental problem caused by landfill disposal of non-biodegradable polymers in the end of life has to be minimized and preferentially eliminated. The solution may rely on the use of biopolymers, in particular polysaccharides. These macromolecules with film-forming properties are able to produce attracting biodegradable materials, possibly applicable in food packaging. Despite all advantages of using polysaccharides obtained from different sources, some drawbacks, mostly related to their low resistance to water, mechanical performance and price, have hindered their wider use and commercialization. Nevertheless, with increasing attention and research on this field, it has been possible to trace some strategies to overcome the problems and recognize solutions. This review summarizes some of the most used polysaccharides in food packaging applications.