β-elemonic acid inhibits growth and triggers apoptosis in human castration-resistant prostate cancer cells through the suppression of JAK2/STAT3/MCL-1 and NF-ĸB signal pathways

NFKB1 as a key player in Tumor biology: from mechanisms to therapeutic implications

NFKB1, a core transcription factor critical in various biological process (BP), is increasingly studied for its role in tumors. This research combines literature reviews, meta-analyses, and bioinformatics to systematically explore NFKB1's involvement in tumor initiation and progression. A unique focus is placed on the NFKB1-94 ATTG promoter polymorphism, highlighting its association with cancer risk across diverse genetic models and ethnic groups, alongside comprehensive analysis of pan-cancer expression patterns and drug sensitivity. The study reveals the intricate connections between NFKB1 and tumors, highlighting its significant roles in invasion, metastasis, genomic stability, and metabolic changes. Through meta-analysis, it is evidenced that tumor specimens exhibit increased NFKB1 expression when compared to non-tumor specimens, although its association with cancer incidence requires further investigation. Analysis from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database suggests that high NFKB1 gene expression may not markedly impact tumor patient prognosis. The noticeable correlation between the NFKB1-94 ATTG promoter polymorphic sequence and elevated cancer susceptibility is highlighted across different genetic models. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis uncovers NFKB1's association with the sensitivity to various anticancer drugs and its central involvement in crucial BP like the cell cycle, cytoskeleton assembly, and cellular senescence. Overall, NFKB1's expression and polymorphisms are significantly linked to tumor risk, prognosis, and treatment response, highlighting its prospect as a forthcoming aim for cancer treatment. This study offers a robust foundation for further exploration of NFKB1's mechanisms and the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.

Targeting mitochondria and programmed cell death as potential interventions for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in men worldwide. Most patients with prostate cancer will turn into end-of-life stage when those tumor cells become metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). The mCRPC subsequently developed a resistance to androgen signaling. The current regimens for mCRPC therapy are still ineffective. Much evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies explored the roles of therapeutic interventions targeted at the mitochondria and programmed cell death for prostate cancer therapy. The present review will focus on the recent medications which targeted at mitochondria and programmed cell death in mCRPC and the significant findings from each study will be summarized and discussed. Development of therapeutic interventions, particularly at mitochondrial and cytotoxic targets for treatment of mCRPC without inducing cellular toxicity of normal tissues will be considered as the novel therapeutic strategy for mCRPC.

Investigating the Potential Effects of 6PPDQ on Prostate Cancer Through Network Toxicology and Molecular Docking

(1) Background: N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine-quinone (6PPDQ), as a newly discovered environmental toxin, has been found more frequently in our living conditions. The literature reports that damage to the reproductive and cardiovascular system is associated with exposure to 6PPDQ. However, the relationship between 6PPDQ and cancer still requires more investigation. This research aims to investigate the association between 6PPDQ and prostate cancer. (2) Methods and Results: Based on the data retrieved from the Pharmmapper, CTD, SEA, SwissTargetPrediction, GeneCard, and OMIM databases, we summarized 239 potential targets utilizing the Venn tool. Through the STRING network database and Cytoscape software, we constructed a PPI network and confirmed ten core targets, including IGF1R, PIK3R1, PTPN11, EGFR, SRC, GRB2, JAK2, SOS1, KDR, and IRS1. We identified the potential pathways through which 6PPDQ acts on these core targets using Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. Ultimately, through molecular docking methods, 6PPDQ binds closely with these ten core targets. These findings indicate that 6PPDQ may influence the proteins related to prostate cancer and may be linked to prostate cancer via several known signaling pathways. (3) Conclusions: This article employs innovative network toxicology to elucidate the prostate carcinogenic effects of 6PPDQ through its modulation of specific vital genes and signaling pathways, thereby establishing a foundational platform for future investigations into the impact of 6PPDQ on prostate cancer and potentially other tumors.

Transcription Factors in Prostate Cancer: Insights for Disease Development and Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches

Transcription factors (TFs) are proteins essential for the regulation of gene expression, and they regulate the genes involved in different cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis. Although their expression is essential in normal physiological conditions, abnormal regulation of TFs plays critical role in several diseases, including cancer. In prostate cancer, the most common malignancy in men, TFs are known to play crucial roles in the initiation, progression, and resistance to therapy of the disease. Understanding the interplay between these TFs and their downstream targets provides insights into the molecular basis of prostate cancer pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the involvement of key TFs, including the E26 Transformation-Specific (ETS) Family (ERG and SPDEF), NF-κB, Activating Protein-1 (AP-1), MYC, and androgen receptor (AR), in prostate cancer while focusing on the molecular mechanisms involved in prostate cancer development. We also discuss emerging diagnostic strategies, early detection, and risk stratification using TFs. Furthermore, we explore the development of therapeutic interventions targeting TF pathways, including the use of small molecule inhibitors, gene therapies, and immunotherapies, aimed at disrupting oncogenic TF signaling and improving patient outcomes. Understanding the complex regulation of TFs in prostate cancer provides valuable insights into disease biology, which ultimately may lead to advancing precision approaches for patients.

Molecular panorama of therapy resistance in prostate cancer: a pre-clinical and bioinformatics analysis for clinical translation

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a malignant disorder of prostate gland being asymptomatic in early stages and high metastatic potential in advanced stages. The chemotherapy and surgical resection have provided favourable prognosis of PCa patients, but advanced and aggressive forms of PCa including CRPC and AVPC lack response to therapy properly, and therefore, prognosis of patients is deteriorated. At the advanced stages, PCa cells do not respond to chemotherapy and radiotherapy in a satisfactory level, and therefore, therapy resistance is emerged. Molecular profile analysis of PCa cells reveals the apoptosis suppression, pro-survival autophagy induction, and EMT induction as factors in escalating malignant of cancer cells and development of therapy resistance. The dysregulation in molecular profile of PCa including upregulation of STAT3 and PI3K/Akt, downregulation of STAT3, and aberrant expression of non-coding RNAs are determining factor for response of cancer cells to chemotherapy. Because of prevalence of drug resistance in PCa, combination therapy including co-utilization of anti-cancer drugs and nanotherapeutic approaches has been suggested in PCa therapy. As a result of increase in DNA damage repair, PCa cells induce radioresistance and RelB overexpression prevents irradiation-mediated cell death. Similar to chemotherapy, nanomaterials are promising for promoting radiosensitivity through delivery of cargo, improving accumulation in PCa cells, and targeting survival-related pathways. In respect to emergence of immunotherapy as a new tool in PCa suppression, tumour cells are able to increase PD-L1 expression and inactivate NK cells in mediating immune evasion. The bioinformatics analysis for evaluation of drug resistance-related genes has been performed.

LCN2 Promotes Proliferation and Glycolysis by Activating the JAK2/STAT3 Signaling Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

This study aimed to explore the molecular mechanism of LCN2 regulating aerobic glycolysis on abnormal proliferation of HCC cells. Based on the prediction of GEPIA database, the expression levels of LCN2 in hepatocellular carcinoma tissues were detected by RT-qPCR analysis, western blot, and immunohistochemical staining, respectively. In addition, CCK-8 kit, clone formation, and EdU staining were used to analyze the effect of LCN2 on the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Glucose uptake and lactate production were detected using kits. In addition, western blot was used to detect the expressions of aerobic glycolysis-related proteins. Finally, western blot was used to detect the expressions of phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3. We found LCN2 was upregualted in hepatocellular carcinoma tissues. CCK-8 kit, clone formation, and EdU staining results showed that LCN2 could promote the proliferation in hepatocellular carcinoma cells (Huh7 and HCCLM3 cells). Western blot results and kits confirmed that LCN2 significantly promotes aerobic glycolysis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Western blot results showed that LCN2 could significantly upregulate the phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3. Our results indicated that LCN2 activated the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway, promoted aerobic glycolysis, and accelerated malignant proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Genetic evidence supporting a causal role of Janus kinase 2 in prostate cancer: a Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

Janus kinase-2 (JAK2) inhibitors are now being tried in basic research and clinical practice in prostate cancer (PCa). However, the causal relationship between JAK2 and PCa has not been uniformly described. Here, we examined the cause-effect relation between JAK2 and PCa.

METHODS

Two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis of genetic variation data of JAK2, PCa from IEU OpenGWAS Project was performed by inverse variance weighted, MR-Egger, and weighted median. Cochran's Q heterogeneity test and MR-Egger multiplicity analysis were performed to normalize the MR analysis results to reduce the effect of bias on the results.

RESULTS

Five instrumental variables were identified for further MR analysis. Specifically, combining the inverse variance-weighted (OR: 1.0009, 95% CI: 1.0001-1.0015, p = 0.02) and weighted median (OR: 1.0009, 95% CI: 1.0000-1.0017, p = 0.03). Sensitivity analysis showed that there was no heterogeneity (p = 0.448) and horizontal multiplicity (p = 0.770) among the instrumental variables.

CONCLUSIONS

We found JAK2 was associated with the development of PCa and was a risk factor for PCa, which might be instructive for the use of JAK2 inhibitors in PCa patients.

Altered serum metabolic profile in patients with IgA nephropathy

BACKGROUND

We investigated alterations in the serum metabolomic profile of IgA nephropathy (IgAN) patients and screen biomarkers of IgA nephropathy based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS).

METHODS

Serum samples from 65 IgAN patients and 31 healthy controls were analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). Univariate and multivariate analysis were performed to screen the differential metabolites. Differential metabolites should meet both the following two criteria: adjusted P < 0.05 in the univariate analysis and VIP value > 1 in the multivariate model. Pathway analysis was performed to reveal the metabolic pathways that were significantly influenced in IgAN. Spearman correlation analysis was applied to explore the correlation between metabolites and between the metabolites and clinicopathological features of IgAN. A random forest model and Logistics regression analysis were conducted to evaluate the predictive ability of the metabolites.

RESULTS

The metabolic profile was significantly altered in IgAN patients compared with healthy controls. Thirty-nine metabolites were identified, including glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, vitamin K1, vitamin K2, bile acids and amino acids. Sphingolipid metabolism, ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis, and glycerophospholipid metabolism were found to be significantly disturbed in the pathway analysis. Differential metabolites were found to be associated with the clinical and pathological features of IgAN patients. Lanosterol, vitamin K1, vitamin K2, and β-elemonic acid were found to have promising predictive ability for IgAN.

CONCLUSIONS

We confirmed the differences in the metabolic profiles of IgAN patients and healthy controls and identified the differential metabolites of IgAN, which may help with the further exploration of the pathogenesis and treatment of IgAN.

Xihuang pill in the treatment of cancer: TCM theories, pharmacological activities, chemical compounds and clinical applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xihuang pill as a famous traditional Chinese formula has long been used as an adjuvant therapy for cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study is aimed at summarizing recent advances in research of Xihuang pill's anti-cancer efficacies from the theoretical basis of traditional Chinese medicine, pharmacological activities, chemical components and its clinical application.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature information was obtained from several authoritative databases including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, CNKI and Wan Fang before April 30, 2023. We also analyzed the representatively chemical compounds of Xihuang pill in vivo experiments using HPLC-Q/TOF-MS.

RESULTS

The present study indicated that Xihuang pill, a classic anti-tumor prescription, had efficacies of strengthening body resistance, clearing heat and detoxification, and promoting blood circulation for removing blood stasis. Modern basic researches showed that Xihuang pill played anti-cancer roles through inducing cancer cell apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis, improving immune function and tumor microenvironment, and regulating related signaling pathways. Its chemical components are primarily consisted of amino acids, terpenoids, fatty acids, fatty acid esters, phenolics, bile acids, bile pigments and volatile oil. Clinically, Xihuang pill, as an adjuvant drug for cancer treatment, was mostly combined with chemotherapy, which could prolong survival, enhance response rate, improve patients' life quality, regulate immune function and alleviate chemotherapy-induced toxicities.

CONCLUSIONS

This present study suggests that Xihuang pill may be a promising adjuvant therapy for cancer, and proposes the possibility of future research directions for Xihuang pill based on the current research status.

Telocinobufagin inhibits osteosarcoma growth and metastasis by inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary bone malignancy in children and adolescents; it exhibits rapid growth and a high metastatic potential and may thus lead to relatively high mortality. The JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway, which plays a critical role in the occurrence and development of osteosarcoma, is a potential target for the treatment of osteosarcoma. Here, we identified the natural product telocinobufagin (TCB), which is a component isolated from toad cake, as a potent candidate with anti-osteosarcoma effects. TCB inhibited osteosarcoma cell growth, migration, invasion and induced cancer cell apoptosis. Mechanistically, TCB specifically inhibited the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. More importantly, TCB significantly suppressed tumor growth and metastasis in an osteosarcoma xenograft animal model. Moreover, TCB also showed strong inhibitory effects in other cancer types, such as lung cancer, liver cancer, colon cancer, breast cancer and gastric cancer. Hence, our study reveals TCB as a potent anti-osteosarcoma therapeutic agent that inhibits the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway.

STAT3 signaling in prostate cancer progression and therapy resistance: An oncogenic pathway with diverse functions

The categorization of cancers demonstrates that prostate cancer is the most common malignancy in men and it causes high death annually. Prostate cancer patients are diagnosed mainly via biomarkers such as PSA test and patients show poor prognosis. Prostate cancer cells rapidly diffuse into different parts of body and their metastasis is also a reason for death. Current therapies for prostate cancer patients include chemotherapy, surgery and radiotherapy as well as targeted therapy. The progression of prostate cancer cells is regulated by different factors that STAT3 signaling is among them. Growth factors and cytokines such as IL-6 can induce STAT3 signaling and it shows carcinogenic impact. Activation of STAT3 signaling occurs in prostate cancer and it promotes malignant behavior of tumor cells. Induction of STAT3 signaling increases glycolysis and proliferation of prostate cancer cells and prevents apoptosis. Furthermore, STAT3 signaling induces EMT mechanism in increasing cancer metastasis. Activation of STAT3 signaling stimulates drug resistance and the limitation of current works is lack of experiment related to role of STAT3 signaling in radio-resistance in prostate tumor. Calcitriol, capsazepine and β-elemonic are among the compounds capable of targeting STAT3 signaling and its inhibition in prostate cancer therapy. In addition to natural products, small molecules targeting STAT3 signaling have been developed in prostate cancer therapy.

Aucubin supplementation alleviate diabetes induced-disruption of blood-testis barrier and testicular damage via stabilizing cell junction integrity

Disruption of blood-testis barrier (BTB) was a crucial pathological feature of diabetes induced-testicular injury at early phase. Aucubin (AU), a main active component in Eucommiae Cortex, has drawn attention for its benefits against male reproductive system disease. The current study was aimed at investigating the protective role of AU and exploring the underlying mechanism in diabetic model. A murine model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was induced by high-fat diet (HFD) combined with streptozocin (STZ). Testicular weight index and morphology, sperm quality, integrity of BTB and protein levels were analyzed. The underlying mechanism of the protective effect of AU was further explored in Sertoli cells (SCs) cultured with high glucose (HG). Our results showed AU inhibited testicular structural destruction, restored disruption of BTB and improved abnormal spermatogenic function in diabetic mice. Consistent with in vivo results, HG induced decreased transcellular resistance and increased permeability in SCs monolayers, while AU exposure reverses this trend. Meanwhile, reduced expression of Zonula occludin-1(ZO-1) and Connexin43(Cx43) in testicular tissue diabetic mice and HG-induced SCs was prominently reversed via AU treatment. Mechanistic studies suggested a high affinity interaction between AU and c-Src protein was identified based on molecular docking, and the activation of c-Src was significantly inhibited in AU treatment. Furthermore, AU significantly increased the expression of Cx43 and ZO-1 proteins HG-induced SCs, which can be further enhanced in gene-silenced c-Src cells to some extent. Our results suggested that AU ameliorated disruption of BTB and spermatogenesis dysfunction in diabetic mice via inactivating c-Src to stabilize cell junction integrity.

Phytochemicals in Inhibition of Prostate Cancer: Evidence from Molecular Mechanisms Studies

Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of death for men worldwide. The development of resistance, toxicity, and side effects of conventional therapies have made prostate cancer treatment become more intensive and aggressive. Many phytochemicals isolated from plants have shown to be tumor cytotoxic. In vitro laboratory studies have revealed that natural compounds can affect cancer cell proliferation by modulating many crucial cellular signaling pathways frequently dysregulated in prostate cancer. A multitude of natural compounds have been found to induce cell cycle arrest, promote apoptosis, inhibit cancer cell growth, and suppress angiogenesis. In addition, combinatorial use of natural compounds with hormone and/or chemotherapeutic drugs seems to be a promising strategy to enhance the therapeutic effect in a less toxic manner, as suggested by pre-clinical studies. In this context, we systematically reviewed the currently available literature of naturally occurring compounds isolated from vegetables, fruits, teas, and herbs, with their relevant mechanisms of action in prostate cancer. As there is increasing data on how phytochemicals interfere with diverse molecular pathways in prostate cancer, this review discusses and emphasizes the implicated molecular pathways of cell proliferation, cell cycle control, apoptosis, and autophagy as important processes that control tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. In conclusion, the elucidation of the natural compounds' chemical structure-based anti-cancer mechanisms will facilitate drug development and the optimization of drug combinations. Phytochemicals, as anti-cancer agents in the treatment of prostate cancer, can have significant health benefits for humans.

Complanatoside A targeting NOX4 blocks renal fibrosis in diabetic mice by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation and autophagy

BACKGROUND

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is an important cause of end-stage renal disease. Complanatoside A (CA), an active component from Semen Astragali Complanati, has been reported to be a potential candidate for the treatment of kidney diseases. However, the underlying mechanisms and protective effects of CA in DN remain unclear.

PURPOSE

In this paper, the effects and the mechanism of CA against ameliorating DN were investigated in vivo and in vitro.

STUDY DESIGN

Here, a high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic model and TGF-β1-induced HK-2 cells were used to explore the protective effects and mechanisms of CA on DN in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

Major biochemical indexes, Histopathological morphology, and Immunohistochemistry have explored the therapeutic effect of CA on DN. Subsequently, TGF-β1-induced HK-2 cells were utilized to investigate the anti-renal fibrosis effect of CA. Finally, the mechanism of CA against renal fibrosis was studied via western blotting, immunofluorescence, transfection, and molecular docking.

RESULTS

The results showed that CA attenuated glomerular hypertrophy, collagen matrix deposition, and tubular interstitial fibrosis in diabetic mice. Moreover, the activation of TGF-β1-inducible epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was hindered by CA treatment in HK-2 cells. Mechanistically, the data suggested that upregulated NOX4 during diabetes and TGF-β1 in HK-2 cells was prominently diminished after CA treatment. Furthermore, CA exposure inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation and downstream inflammation gene expression such as IL-18 and IL-1β in vivo and vitro. These findings indicated that CA obstructed the EMT to protect renal tubular epithelial cells against fibrosis via blocking NLRP3 activation, which was associated with inhibiting NOX4. Besides, the markedly raised autophagy levels in the diabetic model characterized by increasing LC3II/LC3I and Beclin1 were reversed after CA treatment, which is also a pivotal mechanism against renal fibrosis. More importantly, specific NOX4 overexpressed in HK-2 cells abolished that CA exposure blocked TGF-β1-induced-EMT, ROS generation, NLRP3, and autophagy activation. Meanwhile, the inhibition of cell migration, ROS generation, autophagy, and renal inflammation after CA treatment was more pronounced in NOX4-deficient HK-2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provided evidence that CA might be a potential therapeutic agent for DN by ameliorating NLRP3 inflammasome and autophagy activation via targeting NOX4 inhibition.

LINC00893 inhibits the progression of prostate cancer through miR-3173-5p/SOCS3/JAK2/STAT3 pathway

Background

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common malignant tumors in the male urinary system. In recent years, the morbidity and mortality of PCa have been increasing due to the limited effects of existing treatment strategies. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) LINC00893 was reported to inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of papillary thyroid cancer cells, but its role in PCa has not been reported. This study aims to investigate the role and underlying mechanism of LINC00893 in regulating the progression of PCa cells.

Methods

We first compared LINC00893 expression levels between PCa tissues and normal prostate tissues through TCGA database. The relative LINC00893 expression levels were further validated in 66 pairs of PCa tissues and para-cancerous normal tissues, as well as in PCa cell lines. Gain-of-function experiment was performed by transfecting PCa cell with LINC00893 expression vector, and CCK (Cell count kit)-8, 5-Ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation, colony information and transwell assays were conducted to assess the functional phenotypes. Dual-luciferase reporter, RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation (RIP) and RNA pull-down assays were performed to evaluate the molecular interactions.

Results

LINC00893 was downregulated in PCa tissues and cell lines, and patients with low expression of LINC00893 were associated with a poorer overall survival rate. LINC00893 overexpression hindered the proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as well as the migratory ability of PCa cells, and suppressed the tumorigenesis of PCa cells in nude mice. We further demonstrated that LINC00893 acted as a sponge for miR-3173-5p and inhibited its activity, which in turn regulated the suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3)/Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling axis.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrated that LINC00893 suppresses the progression of PCa cells through targeting miR-3173-5p/SOCS3/JAK2/STAT3 axis. Our data uncovers a novel tumor-suppressor role of LINC00893 in PCa, which may serve as a potential strategy for targeted therapy in PCa.

Grapical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-022-02637-4.

TMT-Based Quantitative Proteomics Analysis Reveals the Panoramic Pharmacological Molecular Mechanism of β-Elemonic Acid Inhibition of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide but has limited available therapeutic methods; therefore, there is a need to develop highly efficient prevention and treatment strategies. Here, we investigated the anti-cancer activity of β-elemonic acid (EA) in CRC in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that EA inhibited cell proliferation and migration in the CRC cell lines SW480 and HCT116. Moreover, EA significantly suppressed the growth of transplanted colorectal tumors in nude mice. Interestingly, high-throughput tandem mass tag (TMT)-based quantitative proteomics indicated that EA mainly targets tumor mitochondria and attenuates the translation of 54 mitochondrial ribosome proteins, many of which are discovered significantly upregulated in clinical CRC patients. More interestingly, EA at a low concentration (lower than 15 μg/ml) repressed the cell cycle by downregulating CDK1, CDK6, and CDC20, whereas at a high concentration (higher than 15 μg/ml), caused a non-apoptotic cell death-ferroptosis via downregulating ferritin (FTL) and upregulating transferrin (TF), ferroxidase (CP), and acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4). This is the first report on the panoramic molecular mechanism of EA against CRC, which would make great contributions to developing a novel drug for colorectal cancer therapy.

Choosing Kinase Inhibitors for Androgen Deprivation Therapy-Resistant Prostate Cancer

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is a systemic therapy for advanced prostate cancer (PCa). Although most patients initially respond to ADT, almost all cancers eventually develop castration resistance. Castration-resistant PCa (CRPC) is associated with a very poor prognosis, and the treatment of which is a serious clinical challenge. Accumulating evidence suggests that abnormal expression and activation of various kinases are associated with the emergence and maintenance of CRPC. Many efforts have been made to develop small molecule inhibitors to target the key kinases in CRPC. These inhibitors are designed to suppress the kinase activity or interrupt kinase-mediated signal pathways that are associated with PCa androgen-independent (AI) growth and CRPC development. In this review, we briefly summarize the roles of the kinases that are abnormally expressed and/or activated in CRPC and the recent advances in the development of small molecule inhibitors that target kinases for the treatment of CRPC.

Molecular Basis of Prostate Cancer and Natural Products as Potential Chemotherapeutic and Chemopreventive Agents

Prostate cancer is the second most common malignant cancer in males. It involves a complex process driven by diverse molecular pathways that closely related to the survival, apoptosis, metabolic and metastatic characteristics of aggressive cancer. Prostate cancer can be categorized into androgen dependent prostate cancer and castration-resistant prostate cancer and cure remains elusive due to the developed resistance of the disease. Natural compounds represent an extraordinary resource of structural scaffolds with high diversity that can offer promising chemical agents for making prostate cancer less devastating and curable. Herein, those natural compounds of different origins and structures with potential cytotoxicity and/or in vivo anti-tumor activities against prostate cancer are critically reviewed and summarized according to the cellular signaling pathways they interfere. Moreover, the anti-prostate cancer efficacy of many nutrients, medicinal plant extracts and Chinese medical formulations were presented, and the future prospects for the application of these compounds and extracts were discussed. Although the failure of conventional chemotherapy as well as involved serious side effects makes natural products ideal candidates for the treatment of prostate cancer, more investigations of preclinical and even clinical studies are necessary to make use of these medical substances reasonably. Therefore, the elucidation of structure-activity relationship and precise mechanism of action, identification of novel potential molecular targets, and optimization of drug combination are essential in natural medicine research and development.