Past, present, and perspectives of protein N-terminal methylation

Amyloid engineering - how terminal capping modifies morphology and secondary structure of supramolecular peptide aggregates

The effects of peptide N- and C-termini on aggregation behavior have been scarcely studied. Herein, we examine (105-115) peptide fragments of transthyretin (TTR) containing various functional groups at both termini and study their impact on the morphology and the secondary structure. We synthesized TTR(105-115) peptides functionalized with α-amino (H-), N-acetyl-α-amino (Ac-) or N,N-dimethyl-α-amino (DiMe-) groups at the N-terminus, and with amide (-NH2) or carboxyl (-OH) functions at the C-terminus. We also investigated quasi-racemic mixtures by mixing the L-enantiomers with the D-enantiomer capped by H- and -NH2 groups. We observed that fibril formation is promoted by the sufficient number of hydrogen bonds at peptides' termini. Moreover, the final morphology of the aggregates can be controlled by the functional groups at the N-terminus. Remarkably, all quasi-racemic mixtures resulted in the robust formation of fibrils. Overall, this work illustrates how modifications of peptide termini may help to engineer supramolecular aggregates with a predicted morphology.

Methylation of elongation factor 1A by yeast Efm4 or human eEF1A-KMT2 involves a beta-hairpin recognition motif and crosstalks with phosphorylation

Translation elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) is an essential and highly conserved protein required for protein synthesis in eukaryotes. In both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and human, five different methyltransferases methylate specific residues on eEF1A, making eEF1A the eukaryotic protein targeted by the highest number of dedicated methyltransferases after histone H3. eEF1A methyltransferases are highly selective enzymes, only targeting eEF1A and each targeting just one or two specific residues in eEF1A. However, the mechanism of this selectivity remains poorly understood. To reveal how S. cerevisiae elongation factor methyltransferase 4 (Efm4) specifically methylates eEF1A at K316, we have used AlphaFold-Multimer modeling in combination with crosslinking mass spectrometry (XL-MS) and enzyme mutagenesis. We find that a unique beta-hairpin motif, which extends out from the core methyltransferase fold, is important for the methylation of eEF1A K316 in vitro. An alanine mutation of a single residue on this beta-hairpin, F212, significantly reduces Efm4 activity in vitro and in yeast cells. We show that the equivalent residue in human eEF1A-KMT2 (METTL10), F220, is also important for its activity towards eEF1A in vitro. We further show that the eEF1A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, eEF1Bα, inhibits Efm4 methylation of eEF1A in vitro, likely due to competitive binding. Lastly, we find that phosphorylation of eEF1A at S314 negatively crosstalks with Efm4-mediated methylation of K316. Our findings demonstrate how protein methyltransferases can be highly selective towards a single residue on a single protein in the cell.

Protein methylation characterization using NMR without isotopic labeling

Protein methylation is crucial in epigenetics, and targeting the involved methyltransferases shows great potential for therapeutic intervention with several inhibitors in clinical trials for oncology indications. Therefore, characterization of protein methylation is essential for understanding the methyltransferase function and discovering chemical inhibitors and antagonists. While NMR has been used to measure methylation rates, isotopic labeling of protein or methyl donors can be costly and cannot characterize demethylation of proteins extracted from natural sources. Our method employs a four-quantum filter 1H-13C experiment that selectively detects methyl groups, providing a simple way to characterize methylation and demethylation features of methyltransferases and demethylases, respectively, without requiring isotopic labeling. In our experiments, we successfully observed the methylation of H3 under lysate from various cells and tissues of mice with cancerous growth. The results revealed that H3 undergoes both mono- and dimethylation in all the tested lysates, but at varying rates and degrees. Significantly lower H3 methylation rates and levels were observed in both cervical tumor and breast tumor lysates compared with the corresponding cancerous cells and healthy cells lysates. These findings highlight the variability of histone H3 methylation patterns among healthy cells, cancerous cells, tumor tissues, and different tumor types, and suggest that this method has great potential in facilitating the development of effective interventions against these diseases. By characterizing the methylation features of suspected tumors or areas of concern, it provides valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of cancer development and aids in identifying potential targets for therapeutic interventions.

Backbone N-methylation of peptides: Advances in synthesis and applications in pharmaceutical drug development

Peptide-based drugs have garnered considerable attention in recent years owing to their increasingly crucial role in the treatment of diverse diseases. However, the limited pharmacokinetic properties of peptides have hindered their full potential. One prominent strategy for enhancing the druggability of peptides is N-methylation, which involves the addition of a methyl group to the nitrogen atom of the peptide backbone. This modification significantly improves the stability, bioavailability, receptor binding affinity and selectivity of peptide drug candidates. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the advancements in synthetic methods for N-methylated peptide synthesis, as well as the associated limitations. Moreover, we explore the versatile effects of N-methylation on various aspects of peptide properties. Furthermore, we emphasize the efforts dedicated to N-methylated peptide pharmaceuticals that have successfully obtained marketing approval.

Post-translational modifications of lysine-specific demethylase 1

Lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) is crucial for regulating gene expression by catalyzing the demethylation of mono- and di-methylated histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) and lysine 9 (H3K9) and non-histone proteins through the amine oxidase activity with FAD+ as a cofactor. It interacts with several protein partners, which potentially contributes to its diverse substrate specificity. Given its pivotal role in numerous physiological and pathological conditions, the function of LSD1 is closely regulated by diverse post-translational modifications (PTMs), including phosphorylation, ubiquitination, methylation, and acetylation. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the regulation and function of LSD1 following various PTMs. Specifically, we will focus on the impact of PTMs on LSD1 function in physiological and pathological contexts and discuss the potential therapeutic implications of targeting these modifications for the treatment of human diseases.

Characterization of the biochemical activity and tumor-promoting role of the dual protein methyltransferase METL-13/METTL13 in Caenorhabditis elegans

The methyltransferase-like protein 13 (METTL13) methylates the eukaryotic elongation factor 1 alpha (eEF1A) on two locations: the N-terminal amino group and lysine 55. The absence of this methylation leads to reduced protein synthesis and cell proliferation in human cancer cells. Previous studies showed that METTL13 is dispensable in non-transformed cells, making it potentially interesting for cancer therapy. However, METTL13 has not been examined yet in whole animals. Here, we used the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a simple model to assess the functions of METTL13. Using methyltransferase assays and mass spectrometry, we show that the C. elegans METTL13 (METL-13) methylates eEF1A (EEF-1A) in the same way as the human protein. Crucially, the cancer-promoting role of METL-13 is also conserved and depends on the methylation of EEF-1A, like in human cells. At the same time, METL-13 appears dispensable for animal growth, development, and stress responses. This makes C. elegans a convenient whole-animal model for studying METL13-dependent carcinogenesis without the complications of interfering with essential wild-type functions.

The protein methylation network in yeast: A landmark in completeness for a eukaryotic post-translational modification

Defining all sites for a post-translational modification in the cell, and identifying their upstream modifying enzymes, is essential for a complete understanding of a modification's function. However, the complete mapping of a modification in the proteome and definition of its associated enzyme-substrate network is rarely achieved. Here, we present the protein methylation network for Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Through a formal process of defining and quantifying all potential sources of incompleteness, for both the methylation sites in the proteome and also protein methyltransferases, we prove that this protein methylation network is now near-complete. It contains 33 methylated proteins and 28 methyltransferases, comprising 44 enzyme-substrate relationships, and a predicted further three enzymes. While the precise molecular function of most methylation sites is unknown, and it remains possible that other sites and enzymes remain undiscovered, the completeness of this protein modification network is unprecedented and allows us to holistically explore the role and evolution of protein methylation in the eukaryotic cell. We show that while no single protein methylation event is essential in yeast, the vast majority of methylated proteins are themselves essential, being primarily involved in the core cellular processes of transcription, RNA processing, and translation. This suggests that protein methylation in lower eukaryotes exists to fine-tune proteins whose sequences are evolutionarily constrained, providing an improvement in the efficiency of their cognate processes. The approach described here, for the construction and evaluation of post-translational modification networks and their constituent enzymes and substrates, defines a formal process of utility for other post-translational modifications.

Unlocking the Mysteries of Alpha-N-Terminal Methylation and its Diverse Regulatory Functions

Protein post-translation modifications (PTMs) are a critical regulatory mechanism of protein function. Protein α-N-terminal (Nα) methylation is a conserved PTM across prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Studies of the Nα methyltransferases responsible for Να methylation and their substrate proteins have shown that the PTM involves diverse biological processes, including protein synthesis and degradation, cell division, DNA damage response, and transcription regulation. This review provides an overview of the progress toward the regulatory function of Να methyltransferases and their substrate landscape. More than 200 proteins in humans and 45 in yeast are potential substrates for protein Nα methylation based on the canonical recognition motif, XP[KR]. Based on recent evidence for a less stringent motif requirement, the number of substrates might be increased, but further validation is needed to solidify this concept. A comparison of the motif in substrate orthologs in selected eukaryotic species indicates intriguing gain and loss of the motif across the evolutionary landscape. We discuss the state of knowledge in the field that has provided insights into the regulation of protein Να methyltransferases and their role in cellular physiology and disease. We also outline the current research tools that are key to understanding Να methylation. Finally, challenges are identified and discussed that would aid in unlocking a system-level view of the roles of Να methylation in diverse cellular pathways.

Site-specific methylation on α-N-terminus of peptides through chemical and enzymatic methods

Protein α-N-terminal (Nα) methylation is a post-translational modification catalyzed by N-terminal methyltransferase 1/2 (NTMT1/2) and METTL13. Nα methylation affects protein stability, protein-protein interaction, and protein-DNA interaction. Thus, Nα methylated peptides are essential tools to study the function of Nα methylation, generate specific antibodies for different states of Nα methylation, and characterize the enzyme kinetics and activity. Here, we describe chemical methods of site-specific synthesis of Nα mono-, di-, and trimethylated peptides in the solid phase. In addition, we describethe preparation of trimethylation peptides by recombinant NTMT1 catalysis.

Structure-Activity Relationship Studies of Venglustat on NTMT1 Inhibition

The protein N-terminal methyltransferase 1 (NTMT1) is implicated in neurogenesis, retinoblastoma, and cervical cancer. However, its pharmacological potentials have not been elucidated due to the lack of drug-like inhibitors. Here, we report the discovery of the first NTMT1 in vivo chemical probe GD433 by structure-guided optimization of our previously reported lead compound venglustat. GD433 (IC50 = 27 ± 1.1 nM) displays improved potency and selectivity than venglustat across biochemical, biophysical, and cellular assays. GD433 also displays good oral bioavailability and can serve as an in vivo chemical probe to dissect the pharmacological roles of Nα methylation. In addition, we also identified a close analogue (YD2160) that is inactive against NTMT1. The active inhibitor and negative control will serve as valuable tools to examine the physiological and pharmacological functions of NTMT1 catalytic activity.

Design and characterization of PROTAC degraders specific to protein N-terminal methyltransferase 1

Protein N-terminal methylation catalyzed by N-terminal methyltransferase 1 (NTMT1) is an emerging methylation present in eukaryotes, playing important regulatory roles in various biological and cellular processes. Although dysregulation of NTMT1 has been linked to many diseases such as colorectal cancer, their molecular and cellular mechanisms remain elusive due to inaccessibility to an effective cellular probe. Here we report the design, synthesis, and characterization of the first-in-class NTMT1 degraders based on proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) strategy. Through a brief structure-activity relationship (SAR) study of linker length, a cell permeable degrader 1 involving a von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) E3 ligase ligand was developed and demonstrated to reduce NTMT1 protein levels effectively and selectively in time- and dose-dependent manners in colorectal carcinoma cell lines HCT116 and HT29. Degrader 1 displayed DC50 = 7.53 μM and Dmax > 90% in HCT116 (cellular IC50 > 100 μM for its parent inhibitor DC541). While degrader 1 had marginal cytotoxicity, it displayed anti-proliferative activity in 2D and 3D culture environment, resulting from cell cycle arrested at G0/G1 phase in HCT116. Label-free global proteomic analysis revealed that degrader 1 induced overexpression of calreticulin (CALR), an immunogenic cell death (ICD) signal protein that is known to elicit antitumor immune response and clinically linked to a high survival rate of patients with colorectal cancer upon its upregulation. Collectively, degrader 1 offers the first selective cellular probe for NTMT1 exploration and a new drug discovery modality for NTMT1-related oncology and diseases.

Methyltransferases, functions and applications

In this review the current state‐of‐the‐art of S‐adenosylmethionine (SAM)‐dependent methyltransferases and SAM are evaluated. Their structural classification and diversity is introduced and key mechanistic aspects presented which are then detailed further. Then, catalytic SAM as a target for drugs, and approaches to utilise SAM as a cofactor in synthesis are introduced with different supply and regeneration approaches evaluated. The use of SAM analogues are also described. Finally O‐, N‐, C‐ and S‐MTs, their synthetic applications and potential for compound diversification is given.

Structure, Activity and Function of the Dual Protein Lysine and Protein N-Terminal Methyltransferase METTL13

METTL13 (also known as eEF1A-KNMT and FEAT) is a dual methyltransferase reported to target the N-terminus and Lys55 in the eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha (eEF1A). METTL13-mediated methylation of eEF1A has functional consequences related to translation dynamics and include altered rate of global protein synthesis and translation of specific codons. Aberrant regulation of METTL13 has been linked to several types of cancer but the precise mechanisms are not yet fully understood. In this article, the current literature related to the structure, activity, and function of METTL13 is systematically reviewed and put into context. The links between METTL13 and diseases, mainly different types of cancer, are also summarized. Finally, key challenges and opportunities for METTL13 research are pinpointed in a prospective outlook.

NO-HDAC dual inhibitors

HDAC inhibitors and NO donors have both demonstrated independently broad therapeutic potential in a variety of diseases. Borretto et al. presented the topic of NO-HDAC dual inhibitors for the first time in 2013 as an attractive new topic. Here we collected the general structure of all synthesized NO-HDAC dual inhibitors, lead compounds, synthesis methods and biological features of the most potent dual NO-HDAC inhibitor in each category with the intention of assisting in the synthesis and optimization of new drug-like compounds for diverse diseases. Based on studies done so far, NO-HDAC dual inhibitors have displayed satisfactory results against wound healing (3), heart hypertrophy (3), inflammatory, cardiovascular, neuromuscular illnesses (11a-11e) and cancer (6a-6o, 9a-9d, 10a-10d, 16 and 17). NO-HDAC dual inhibitors can have high therapeutic potential for various diseases due to their new properties, NO properties, HDAC inhibitor properties and also due to the effects of NO on HDAC enzymes.