1
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Zhang D, Xu F, Liu Y. Research progress on regulating factors of muscle fiber heterogeneity in poultry: a review. Poult Sci 2024; 103:104031. [PMID: 39033575 PMCID: PMC11295477 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.104031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Control of meat quality traits is an important goal of any farm animal production, including poultry. A better understanding of the biochemical properties of muscle fiber properties that drive muscle development and ultimately meat quality constitutes one of the major challenging topics in animal production and meat science. In this paper, the existing classification methods of skeletal muscle fibers in poultry were reviewed and the relationship between contractile and metabolic characteristics of muscle fibers and poultry meat quality was described. Finally, a comprehensive review of multiple potential factors affecting muscle fiber distribution and conversion is presented, including breed, sex, hormones, growth performance, diet, muscle position, exercise, and ambient temperature. We emphasize that knowledge of muscle fiber typing is essential to better understand how to control muscle characteristics throughout the life cycle of animals to better manage the final quality of poultry meat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, and Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Feng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, and Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yiping Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Swine and Poultry Breeding Industry, Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Multi-omics, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, and Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.
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2
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Skulborstad A, Goulbourne NC. A chemo-mechanical constitutive model for muscle activation in bat wing skins. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20230593. [PMID: 38981517 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Birds, bats and insects have evolved unique wing structures to achieve a wide range of flight capabilities. Insects have relatively stiff and passive wings, birds have a complex and hierarchical feathered structure and bats have an articulated skeletal system integrated with a highly stretchable skin. The compliant skin of the wing distinguishes bats from all other flying animals and contributes to bats' remarkable, highly manoeuvrable flight performance and high energetic efficiency. The structural and functional complexity of the bat wing skin is one of the least understood although important elements of the bat flight anatomy. The wing skin has two unusual features: a discrete array of very soft elastin fibres and a discrete array of skeletal muscle fibres. The latter is intriguing because skeletal muscle is typically attached to bone, so the arrangement of intramembranous muscle in soft skin raises questions about its role in flight. In this paper, we develop a multi-scale chemo-mechanical constitutive model for bat wing skin. The chemo-mechanical model links cross-bridge cycling to a structure-based continuum model that describes the active viscoelastic behaviour of the soft anisotropic skin tissue. Continuum models at the tissue length-scale are valuable as they are easily implemented in commercial finite element codes to solve problems involving complex geometries, loading and boundary conditions. The constitutive model presented in this paper will be used in detailed finite element simulations to improve our understanding of the mechanics of bat flight in the context of wing kinematics and aerodynamic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - N C Goulbourne
- Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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3
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Figueroa CDN, Cruz FK, Kaneko IN, Basaglia RA, Oliveira CAL, Almeida FLA, Santos TC. Growth of breast muscles in European and Japanese quail raised in meat production system: a morphological analysis. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2023; 95:e20200530. [PMID: 38088703 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765202320200530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth curves have been described in the quail but with no attention to the muscle composing of the breast. The description of the characteristics of growth curves to body weight and to breast muscle was the aim of this study. Morphological development of Musculus supracoracoideus and Musculus pectoralis in European and Japanese quail was assessed from the final incubation of to 35 days. Gompertz models were adjusted with maximum growth rates to body weight, breast weight, and Musculus pectoralis and supracoracoideus weight at 17.6; 22.2; 23.5, and 21.4 days. The European quail had a higher body and breast weight at maturity. Musculus supracoracoideus developed faster in both subspecies but with larger Musculus pectoralis. Both musculus had a greater number of fibers type IIA and largest fibers IIB, with quadratically increasing in fiber diameter with age in both subspecies and muscles. At 35 days, results of meat quality indicated similarity between genders and subspecies, with darker and redness breast meat in Japanese quail. In conclusion, breast weight gain was a result of type IIA and IIB fiber hypertrophy in both muscles and, despite the difference in size and aptitude, Japanese and European quail showed similar body and muscle growth patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian D N Figueroa
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Zootecnia, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
| | - Flavia K Cruz
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Zootecnia, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
| | - Isabelle N Kaneko
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Zootecnia, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A Basaglia
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Zootecnia, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
| | - Carlos A L Oliveira
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Zootecnia, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
| | - Fernanda L A Almeida
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
| | - Tatiana C Santos
- Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Departamento de Zootecnia, Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brazil
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4
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Barbe J, Watson J, Roussel D, Voituron Y. The allometry of mitochondrial efficiency is tissue dependent: a comparison between skeletal and cardiac muscles of birds. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb246299. [PMID: 37921223 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Body mass is known to be a fundamental driver of many biological traits, including metabolism. However, the effect of body mass on mitochondrial energy transduction is still poorly understood and has mainly been described in mammals. Using 13 species of birds ranging from 15 g (finches) to 160 kg (ostrich), we report here that the mitochondrial production of ATP, and the corresponding oxygen consumption, are negatively dependent on body mass in skeletal muscles but not in the heart. Results also showed that mitochondrial efficiency was positively correlated with body mass at sub-maximal phosphorylating states in the skeletal muscle, but not in the heart. This difference between muscle tissues is potentially linked to the difference in energetic demand expandability and the heavy involvement of skeletal muscle in thermoregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Barbe
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Julia Watson
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Damien Roussel
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Yann Voituron
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
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5
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Groom DJE, Black B, Deakin JE, DeSimone JG, Lauzau MC, Pedro BP, Straight CR, Unger KP, Miller MS, Gerson AR. Flight muscle size reductions and functional changes following long-distance flight under variable humidity conditions in a migratory warbler. Physiol Rep 2023; 11:e15842. [PMID: 37849053 PMCID: PMC10582281 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Bird flight muscle can lose as much as 20% of its mass during a migratory flight due to protein catabolism, and catabolism can be further exacerbated under dehydrating conditions. However, the functional consequences of exercise and environment induced protein catabolism on muscle has not been examined. We hypothesized that prolonged flight would cause a decline in muscle mass, aerobic capacity, and contractile performance. This decline would be heightened for birds placed under dehydrating environmental conditions, which typically increases lean mass losses. Yellow-rumped warblers (Setophaga coronata) were exposed to dry or humid (12 or 80% relative humidity at 18°C) conditions for up to 6 h while at rest or undergoing flight. The pectoralis muscle was sampled after flight/rest or after 24 h of recovery, and contractile properties and enzymatic capacity for aerobic metabolism was measured. There was no change in lipid catabolism or force generation of the muscle due to flight or humidity, despite reductions in pectoralis dry mass immediately post-flight. However, there was a slowing of myosin-actin crossbridge kinetics under dry compared to humid conditions. Aerobic and contractile function is largely preserved after 6 h of exercise, suggesting that migratory birds preserve energy pathways and function in the muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derrick J. E. Groom
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts AmherstMassachusettsUSA
- Department of BiologySan Francisco State UniversityCaliforniaSan FranciscoUSA
| | - Betsy Black
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts AmherstMassachusettsUSA
- Present address:
Center for Ecosystem Science and SocietyNorthern Arizona UniversityArizonaFlagstaffUSA
| | - Jessica E. Deakin
- Centre for Animals on the Move, Department of BiologyWestern UniversityOntarioLondonCanada
| | - Joely G. DeSimone
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts AmherstMassachusettsUSA
- Present address:
Appalachian LaboratoryUniversity of Maryland Center for Environmental ScienceMarylandFrostburgUSA
| | - M. Collette Lauzau
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts AmherstMassachusettsUSA
- Present address:
The Water SchoolFlorida Gulf Coast UniversityFloridaFort MyersUSA
| | - Bradley P. Pedro
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts AmherstMassachusettsUSA
- Present address:
Department of BiologyTufts UniversityMassachusettsMedfordUSA
| | - Chad R. Straight
- Department of KinesiologyUniversity of MassachusettsMassachusettsAmherstUSA
| | - Kimberly P. Unger
- Department of KinesiologyUniversity of MassachusettsMassachusettsAmherstUSA
| | - Mark S. Miller
- Department of KinesiologyUniversity of MassachusettsMassachusettsAmherstUSA
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6
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Isbilir F, Akkoc CGO, Arıcan I. Morphometric examination of hind limb and foot bones and fibre type composition of crus region muscles in quail and pigeon. Anat Histol Embryol 2023. [PMID: 36892010 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the foot and hind limb bones of pigeons and quails were measured morphometrically. Additionally, microscopic classifications of the muscles affecting the foot and digit joints were made. For the macroscopic inspection, 40 birds were used, including 20 adult quails (10 males, 10 females) and 20 adult pigeons (10 males, 10 females). Diethyl ether was inhaled to anaesthetize the animals. The poultry animals were put under anaesthesia, and radiographic pictures of their left feet were obtained individually. DAP measurements were performed separately from the images taken with the Image J program. Then, they were euthanized by cervical dislocation under diethyl ether anaesthesia. The right legs of the euthanized animals were preserved in a 10% neutral formalin solution for histology procedures just after the legs were dissected from the trunk. Morphometric measurements of bone lengths were made in accordance with the measurement points specified by von den Driesch. After fixation for histological examination, routine tissue follow-up was performed and the tissues were embedded in paraffin. The presence of SO-type I, FG-type IIb and FOG-type IIa in 4-5 μ sections taken from paraffin blocks was demonstrated using the indirect streptavidin-biotin-complex method from immunohistochemical methods. The result of our study was statistically evaluated at p < 0.05 and p < 0.001 levels. The length of the hallux, the articulation point to the TMT and the fibre arrangements in the two flexor group muscles showed that the hind limbs and feet of the pigeons had a more favourable anatomical and histological structure for the perching movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatma Isbilir
- Anatomy Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Siirt University, Siirt, Turkey
| | - Cansel Guzin Ozguden Akkoc
- Histology and Embriology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Ilker Arıcan
- Anatomy Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
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7
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Agrawal S, Tobalske BW, Anwar Z, Luo H, Hedrick TL, Cheng B. Musculoskeletal wing-actuation model of hummingbirds predicts diverse effects of primary flight muscles in hovering flight. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20222076. [PMID: 36475440 PMCID: PMC9727662 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hummingbirds have evolved to hover and manoeuvre with exceptional flight control. This is enabled by their musculoskeletal system that successfully exploits the agile motion of flapping wings. Here, we synthesize existing empirical and modelling data to generate novel hypotheses for principles of hummingbird wing actuation. These may help guide future experimental work and provide insights into the evolution and robotic emulation of hummingbird flight. We develop a functional model of the hummingbird musculoskeletal system, which predicts instantaneous, three-dimensional torque produced by primary (pectoralis and supracoracoideus) and combined secondary muscles. The model also predicts primary muscle contractile behaviour, including stress, strain, elasticity and work. Results suggest that the primary muscles (i.e. the flight 'engine') function as diverse effectors, as they do not simply power the stroke, but also actively deviate and pitch the wing with comparable actuation torque. The results also suggest that the secondary muscles produce controlled-tightening effects by acting against primary muscles in deviation and pitching. The diverse effects of the pectoralis are associated with the evolution of a comparatively enormous bicipital crest on the humerus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suyash Agrawal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Bret W. Tobalske
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Zafar Anwar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Haoxiang Luo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
| | - Tyson L. Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Bo Cheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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8
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Recurrent erosion of COA1/MITRAC15 exemplifies conditional gene dispensability in oxidative phosphorylation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24437. [PMID: 34952909 PMCID: PMC8709867 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04077-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle fibers rely upon either oxidative phosphorylation or the glycolytic pathway with much less reliance on oxidative phosphorylation to achieve muscular contractions that power mechanical movements. Species with energy-intensive adaptive traits that require sudden bursts of energy have a greater dependency on glycolytic fibers. Glycolytic fibers have decreased reliance on OXPHOS and lower mitochondrial content compared to oxidative fibers. Hence, we hypothesized that gene loss might have occurred within the OXPHOS pathway in lineages that largely depend on glycolytic fibers. The protein encoded by the COA1/MITRAC15 gene with conserved orthologs found in budding yeast to humans promotes mitochondrial translation. We show that gene disrupting mutations have accumulated within the COA1 gene in the cheetah, several species of galliform birds, and rodents. The genomic region containing COA1 is a well-established evolutionary breakpoint region in mammals. Careful inspection of genome assemblies of closely related species of rodents and marsupials suggests two independent COA1 gene loss events co-occurring with chromosomal rearrangements. Besides recurrent gene loss events, we document changes in COA1 exon structure in primates and felids. The detailed evolutionary history presented in this study reveals the intricate link between skeletal muscle fiber composition and the occasional dispensability of the chaperone-like role of the COA1 gene.
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9
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Hwang KE, Claus JR. Characterization of Carcass Color Differences Between Hens (Small Birds) and Meat-Type Male Pheasants (Large Birds). MEAT AND MUSCLE BIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.22175/mmb.11589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The underlying changes in hen carcass color upon freezing were compared with the color of meat-type male pheasants upon freezing. Chemical and physical assessments of these two pheasant types (n=5) and the effects of different chilling methods on hen carcasses (n=10) were evaluated. The results showed that hen carcasses exhibited more red pigmentation (myoglobin, hemoglobin), as well as significantly higher pH values and redness, than the carcasses from meat-type pheasants. The moisture content was higher in hens than in meat-type pheasants, especially in the skin. The intermediate fiber (IIA) type was the only type found in the pectoralis major muscle, regardless of pheasant type. Chilling method significantly changed the color attributes of the hen carcass. Immersion chilling decreased skin redness (less pigmentation and Commission Internationale de l ́Eclairage [CIE] a*); the breast meat was less red than that from the chilling-in-a-bag condition. The skin had substantially higher levels of red pigmentation than the breast muscles, irrespective of the pheasant type and chilling method (P < 0.05). Our findings suggest that the more intense red appearance may be related to a combination of greater residual hemoglobin levels and higher pH within the skin. The greater moisture content of the skin may have facilitated the development of greater transparency to the darker, more red breast muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ko-Eun Hwang
- University of Wisconsin–Madison Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
| | - James R. Claus
- University of Wisconsin–Madison Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
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10
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Asfour HA, Shaqoura EI, Said RS, Mustafa AG, Emerald BS, Allouh MZ. Differential response of oxidative and glycolytic skeletal muscle fibers to mesterolone. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12301. [PMID: 34112889 PMCID: PMC8192902 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91854-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative and glycolytic muscle fibers differ in their ultrastructure, metabolism, and responses to physiological stimuli and pathological insults. We examined whether these fibers respond differentially to exogenous anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) by comparing morphological and histological changes between the oxidative anterior latissimus dorsi (ALD) and glycolytic pectoralis major (PM) fibers in adult avian muscles. Adult female White Leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus) were randomly divided into five groups: a vehicle control and four mesterolone treatment groups (4, 8, 12, and 16 mg/kg). Mesterolone was administered orally every three days for four weeks. Immunocytochemical techniques and morphometric analyses were employed to measure the changes in muscle weight, fiber size, satellite cell (SC) composition, and number of myonuclei. Mesterolone increased both body and muscle weights and induced hypertrophy in glycolytic PM fibers but not in oxidative ALD fibers. Mesterolone induced SC proliferation in both muscles; however, the myonuclear accretion was noticeable only in the PM muscle. In both muscles, the collective changes maintained a constant myonuclear domain size and the changes were dose independent. In conclusion, mesterolone induced distinct dose-independent effects in avian oxidative and glycolytic skeletal muscle fibers; these findings might be clinically valuable in the treatment of age-related sarcopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasan A Asfour
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan.,Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Inserm, END-ICAP, 78000, Versailles, France
| | - Emad I Shaqoura
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Raed S Said
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Ayman G Mustafa
- Basic Medical Science Department, College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.,Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Research Unit, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Bright Starling Emerald
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE
| | - Mohammed Z Allouh
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan. .,Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, UAE.
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11
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Nguyen A, Balaban JP, Azizi E, Talmadge RJ, Lappin AK. Fatigue resistant jaw muscles facilitate long-lasting courtship behaviour in the southern alligator lizard ( Elgaria multicarinata). Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201578. [PMID: 32962547 PMCID: PMC7542809 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The southern alligator lizard (Elgaria multicarinata) exhibits a courtship behaviour during which the male firmly grips the female's head in his jaws for many hours at a time. This extreme behaviour counters the conventional wisdom that reptilian muscle is incapable of powering high-endurance behaviours. We conducted in situ experiments in which the jaw-adductor muscles of lizards were stimulated directly while bite force was measured simultaneously. Fatigue tests were performed by stimulating the muscles with a series of tetanic trains. Our results show that a substantial sustained force gradually develops during the fatigue test. This sustained force persists after peak tetanic forces have declined to a fraction of their initial magnitude. The observed sustained force during in situ fatigue tests is consistent with the courtship behaviour of these lizards and probably reflects physiological specialization. The results of molecular analysis reveal that the jaw muscles contain masticatory and tonic myosin fibres. We propose that the presence of tonic fibres may explain the unusual sustained force properties during mate-holding behaviour. The characterization of muscle properties that facilitate extreme performance during specialized behaviours may reveal general mechanisms of muscle function, especially when done in light of convergently evolved systems exhibiting similar performance characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allyn Nguyen
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
| | - Jordan P Balaban
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Robert J Talmadge
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
| | - A Kristopher Lappin
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
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12
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DuBay SG, Wu Y, Scott GR, Qu Y, Liu Q, Smith JH, Xin C, Hart Reeve A, Juncheng C, Meyer D, Wang J, Johnson J, Cheviron ZA, Lei F, Bates J. Life history predicts flight muscle phenotype and function in birds. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:1262-1276. [PMID: 32124424 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Functional traits are the essential phenotypes that underlie an organism's life history and ecology. Although biologists have long recognized that intraspecific variation is consequential to an animals' ecology, studies of functional variation are often restricted to species-level comparisons, ignoring critical variation within species. In birds, interspecific comparisons have been foundational in connecting flight muscle phenotypes to species-level ecology, but intraspecific variation has remained largely unexplored. We asked how age- and sex-dependent demands on flight muscle function are reconciled in birds. The flight muscle is an essential multifunctional organ, mediating a large range of functions associated with powered flight and thermoregulation. These functions must be balanced over an individual's lifetime. We leveraged within- and between-species comparisons in a clade of small passerines (Tarsiger bush-robins) from the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. We integrated measurements of flight muscle physiology, morphology, behaviour, phenology and environmental data, analysing trait data within a context of three widespread, adaptive life-history strategies-sexual dichromatism, age and sex-structured migration, and delayed plumage maturation. This approach provides a framework of the selective forces that shape functional variation within and between species. We found more variation in flight muscle traits within species than has been previously described between species of birds under 20 g. This variation was associated with the discovery of mixed muscle fibre types (i.e. both fast glycolytic and fast oxidative fibres), which differ markedly in their physiological and functional attributes. This result is surprising given that the flight muscles of small birds are generally thought to contain only fast oxidative fibres, suggesting a novel ecological context for glycolytic muscle fibres in small birds. Within each species, flight muscle phenotypes varied by age and sex, reflecting the functional demands at different life-history stages and the pressures that individuals face as a result of their multi-class identity (i.e. species, age and sex). Our findings reveal new links between avian physiology, ecology, behaviour and life history, while demonstrating the importance of demographic-dependent selection in shaping functional phenotypic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane G DuBay
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Yongjie Wu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Graham R Scott
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Yanhua Qu
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qiao Liu
- Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Joel H Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Chao Xin
- Laboratory of Molecular Evolution and Molecular Phylogeny, College of Life Sciences, Shannxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Andrew Hart Reeve
- Biosystematics Section, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Chen Juncheng
- Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Dylan Meyer
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jacob Johnson
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Zachary A Cheviron
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Fumin Lei
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - John Bates
- Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
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13
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Fattening performance and meat quality of Pekin ducks under different rearing systems. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2019. [DOI: 10.1017/s004393391700099x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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14
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Qu Y, Chen C, Xiong Y, She H, Zhang YE, Cheng Y, DuBay S, Li D, Ericson PGP, Hao Y, Wang H, Zhao H, Song G, Zhang H, Yang T, Zhang C, Liang L, Wu T, Zhao J, Gao Q, Zhai W, Lei F. Rapid phenotypic evolution with shallow genomic differentiation during early stages of high elevation adaptation in Eurasian Tree Sparrows. Natl Sci Rev 2019; 7:113-127. [PMID: 34692022 PMCID: PMC8289047 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwz138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Known as the ‘third polar region’, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau represents one of the harshest highland environments in the world and yet a number of organisms thrive there. Previous studies of birds, animals and humans have focused on well-differentiated populations in later stages of phenotypic divergence. The adaptive processes during the initial phase of highland adaptation remain poorly understood. We studied a human commensal, the Eurasian Tree Sparrow, which has followed human agriculture to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Despite strong phenotypic differentiation at multiple levels, in particular in muscle-related phenotypes, highland and lowland populations show shallow genomic divergence and the colonization event occurred within the past few thousand years. In a one-month acclimation experiment investigating phenotypic plasticity, we exposed adult lowland tree sparrows to a hypoxic environment and did not observe muscle changes. Through population genetic analyses, we identified a signature of polygenic adaptation, whereby shifts in allele frequencies are spread across multiple loci, many of which are associated with muscle-related processes. Our results reveal a case of positive selection in which polygenic adaptation appears to drive rapid phenotypic evolution, shedding light on early stages of adaptive evolution to a novel environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhua Qu
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chunhai Chen
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Ying Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Huishang She
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yong E Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China
| | - Yalin Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shane DuBay
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Life Sciences Section, Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL 60605, USA
| | - Dongming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Per G P Ericson
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Swedish Museum of Natural History, SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yan Hao
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hongyuan Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Hongfeng Zhao
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Gang Song
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Hailin Zhang
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Ting Yang
- China National GeneBank, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518120, China
| | - Chi Zhang
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Liping Liang
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Tianyu Wu
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Jinyang Zhao
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Qiang Gao
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518084, China
| | - Weiwei Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, Agency for Science, Technology, and Research, Singapore 138672, Singapore
| | - Fumin Lei
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China
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15
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Ingersoll R, Lentink D. How the hummingbird wingbeat is tuned for efficient hovering. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:221/20/jeb178228. [PMID: 30323114 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.178228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Both hummingbirds and insects flap their wings to hover. Some insects, like fruit flies, improve efficiency by lifting their body weight equally over the upstroke and downstroke, while utilizing elastic recoil during stroke reversal. It is unclear whether hummingbirds converged on a similar elastic storage solution, because of asymmetries in their lift generation and specialized flight muscle apparatus. The muscles are activated a quarter of a stroke earlier than in larger birds, and contract superfast, which cannot be explained by previous stroke-averaged analyses. We measured the aerodynamic force and kinematics of Anna's hummingbirds to resolve wing torque and power within the wingbeat. Comparing these wingbeat-resolved aerodynamic weight support measurements with those of fruit flies, hawk moths and a generalist bird, the parrotlet, we found that hummingbirds have about the same low induced power losses as the two insects, lower than that of the generalist bird in slow hovering flight. Previous analyses emphasized how bird flight muscles have to overcome wing drag midstroke. We found that high wing inertia revises this for hummingbirds - the pectoralis has to coordinate upstroke to downstroke reversal while the supracoracoideus coordinates downstroke to upstroke reversal. Our mechanistic analysis aligns with all previous muscle recordings and shows how early activation helps furnish elastic recoil through stroke reversal to stay within the physiological limits of muscles. Our findings thus support Weis-Fogh's hypothesis that flies and hummingbirds have converged on a mechanically efficient wingbeat to meet the high energetic demands of hovering flight. These insights can help improve the efficiency of flapping robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivers Ingersoll
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
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16
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Dolan E, Saunders B, Dantas WS, Murai IH, Roschel H, Artioli GG, Harris R, Bicudo JEPW, Sale C, Gualano B. A Comparative Study of Hummingbirds and Chickens Provides Mechanistic Insight on the Histidine Containing Dipeptide Role in Skeletal Muscle Metabolism. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14788. [PMID: 30283073 PMCID: PMC6170442 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32636-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Histidine containing dipeptides (HCDs) have numerous ergogenic and therapeutic properties, but their primary role in skeletal muscle remains unclear. Potential functions include pH regulation, protection against reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, or Ca2+ regulation. In recognition of the challenge of isolating physiological processes in-vivo, we employed a comparative physiology approach to investigate the primary mechanism of HCD action in skeletal muscle. We selected two avian species (i.e., hummingbirds and chickens), who represented the extremes of the physiological processes in which HCDs are likely to function. Our findings indicate that HCDs are non-essential to the development of highly oxidative and contractile muscle, given their very low content in hummingbird skeletal tissue. In contrast, their abundance in the glycolytic chicken muscle, indicate that they are important in anaerobic bioenergetics as pH regulators. This evidence provides new insights on the HCD role in skeletal muscle, which could inform widespread interventions, from health to elite performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dolan
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - B Saunders
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - W S Dantas
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - I H Murai
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - H Roschel
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - G G Artioli
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - R Harris
- Junipa Ltd; Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - J E P W Bicudo
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - C Sale
- Sport, Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre; Musculoskeletal Physiology Research Group; School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - B Gualano
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Rheumatology Division; Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, BR, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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17
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Myrka AM, Welch KC. Evidence of high transport and phosphorylation capacity for both glucose and fructose in the ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 224:253-261. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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18
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Dakin R, Segre PS, Straw AD, Altshuler DL. Morphology, muscle capacity, skill, and maneuvering ability in hummingbirds. Science 2018; 359:653-657. [PMID: 29439237 DOI: 10.1126/science.aao7104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
How does agility evolve? This question is challenging because natural movement has many degrees of freedom and can be influenced by multiple traits. We used computer vision to record thousands of translations, rotations, and turns from more than 200 hummingbirds from 25 species, revealing that distinct performance metrics are correlated and that species diverge in their maneuvering style. Our analysis demonstrates that the enhanced maneuverability of larger species is explained by their proportionately greater muscle capacity and lower wing loading. Fast acceleration maneuvers evolve by recruiting changes in muscle capacity, whereas fast rotations and sharp turns evolve by recruiting changes in wing morphology. Both species and individuals use turns that play to their strengths. These results demonstrate how both skill and biomechanical traits shape maneuvering behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roslyn Dakin
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada
| | - Paolo S Segre
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada
| | - Andrew D Straw
- Department of Animal Physiology, Neurobiology and Behavior, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, D-79104, Germany
| | - Douglas L Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada.
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19
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Tobalske BW. Evolution of avian flight: muscles and constraints on performance. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 371:rstb.2015.0383. [PMID: 27528773 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Competing hypotheses about evolutionary origins of flight are the 'fundamental wing-stroke' and 'directed aerial descent' hypotheses. Support for the fundamental wing-stroke hypothesis is that extant birds use flapping of their wings to climb even before they are able to fly; there are no reported examples of incrementally increasing use of wing movements in gliding transitioning to flapping. An open question is whether locomotor styles must evolve initially for efficiency or if they might instead arrive due to efficacy. The proximal muscles of the avian wing output work and power for flight, and new research is exploring functions of the distal muscles in relation to dynamic changes in wing shape. It will be useful to test the relative contributions of the muscles of the forearm compared with inertial and aerodynamic loading of the wing upon dynamic morphing. Body size has dramatic effects upon flight performance. New research has revealed that mass-specific muscle power declines with increasing body mass among species. This explains the constraints associated with being large. Hummingbirds are the only species that can sustain hovering. Their ability to generate force, work and power appears to be limited by time for activation and deactivation within their wingbeats of high frequency. Most small birds use flap-bounding flight, and this flight style may offer an energetic advantage over continuous flapping during fast flight or during flight into a headwind. The use of flap-bounding during slow flight remains enigmatic. Flap-bounding birds do not appear to be constrained to use their primary flight muscles in a fixed manner. To improve understanding of the functional significance of flap-bounding, the energetic costs and the relative use of alternative styles by a given species in nature merit study.This article is part of the themed issue 'Moving in a moving medium: new perspectives on flight'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bret W Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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20
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Konow N, Cheney JA, Roberts TJ, Iriarte-Díaz J, Breuer KS, Waldman JRS, Swartz SM. Speed-dependent modulation of wing muscle recruitment intensity and kinematics in two bat species. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1820-1829. [PMID: 28235906 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.144550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Animals respond to changes in power requirements during locomotion by modulating the intensity of recruitment of their propulsive musculature, but many questions concerning how muscle recruitment varies with speed across modes of locomotion remain unanswered. We measured normalized average burst EMG (aEMG) for pectoralis major and biceps brachii at different flight speeds in two relatively distantly related bat species: the aerial insectivore Eptesicus fuscus, and the primarily fruit-eating Carollia perspicillata These ecologically distinct species employ different flight behaviors but possess similar wing aspect ratio, wing loading and body mass. Because propulsive requirements usually correlate with body size, and aEMG likely reflects force, we hypothesized that these species would deploy similar speed-dependent aEMG modulation. Instead, we found that aEMG was speed independent in E. fuscus and modulated in a U-shaped or linearly increasing relationship with speed in C. perspicillata This interspecific difference may be related to differences in muscle fiber type composition and/or overall patterns of recruitment of the large ensemble of muscles that participate in actuating the highly articulated bat wing. We also found interspecific differences in the speed dependence of 3D wing kinematics: E. fuscus modulates wing flexion during upstroke significantly more than C. perspicillata Overall, we observed two different strategies to increase flight speed: C. perspicillata tends to modulate aEMG, and E. fuscus tends to modulate wing kinematics. These strategies may reflect different requirements for avoiding negative lift and overcoming drag during slow and fast flight, respectively, a subject we suggest merits further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolai Konow
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Jorn A Cheney
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Thomas J Roberts
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Jose Iriarte-Díaz
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Kenneth S Breuer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - J Rhea S Waldman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Sharon M Swartz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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21
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Lindsay T, Sustar A, Dickinson M. The Function and Organization of the Motor System Controlling Flight Maneuvers in Flies. Curr Biol 2017; 27:345-358. [PMID: 28132816 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Animals face the daunting task of controlling their limbs using a small set of highly constrained actuators. This problem is particularly demanding for insects such as Drosophila, which must adjust wing motion for both quick voluntary maneuvers and slow compensatory reflexes using only a dozen pairs of muscles. To identify strategies by which animals execute precise actions using sparse motor networks, we imaged the activity of a complete ensemble of wing control muscles in intact, flying flies. Our experiments uncovered a remarkably efficient logic in which each of the four skeletal elements at the base of the wing are equipped with both large phasically active muscles capable of executing large changes and smaller tonically active muscles specialized for continuous fine-scaled adjustments. Based on the responses to a broad panel of visual motion stimuli, we have developed a model by which the motor array regulates aerodynamically functional features of wing motion. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Lindsay
- Division of Biology and Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Anne Sustar
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Michael Dickinson
- Division of Biology and Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
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22
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Velten BP, Welch KC, Ramenofsky M. Altered expression of pectoral myosin heavy chain isoforms corresponds to migration status in the white-crowned sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160775. [PMID: 28018664 PMCID: PMC5180162 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Birds undergo numerous changes as they progress through life-history stages, yet relatively few studies have examined how birds adapt to both the dynamic energetic and mechanical demands associated with such transitions. Myosin heavy chain (MyHC) expression, often linked with muscle fibre type, is strongly correlated with a muscle's mechanical power-generating capability, thus we examined several morphological properties, including MyHC expression of the pectoralis, in a long-distance migrant, the white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii) throughout the progression from winter, spring departure and arrival on breeding grounds. White-crowned sparrows demonstrated significant phenotypic flexibility throughout the seasonal transition, including changes in prealternate moult status, lipid fuelling, body condition and flight muscle morphology. Pectoral MyHC expression also varied significantly over the course of the study. Wintering birds expressed a single, newly classified adult fast 2 isoform. At spring departure, pectoral isoform expression included two MyHC isoforms: the adult fast 2 isoform along with a smaller proportion of a newly present adult fast 1 isoform. By spring arrival, both adult fast isoforms present at departure remained, yet expression had shifted to a greater relative proportion of the adult fast 1 isoform. Altering pectoral MyHC isoform expression in preparation for and during spring migration may represent an adaptation to modulate muscle mechanical output to support long-distance flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy P. Velten
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM1C 1A4
| | - Kenneth C. Welch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM1C 1A4
- Center for the Neurobiology of Stress, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM1C 1A4
- Center for the Analysis of Genome Evolution and Function, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM5S 3B2
| | - Marilyn Ramenofsky
- Department of Neurobiology Physiology Behavior, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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23
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Fuxjager MJ, Goller F, Dirkse A, Sanin GD, Garcia S. Select forelimb muscles have evolved superfast contractile speed to support acrobatic social displays. eLife 2016; 5:e13544. [PMID: 27067379 PMCID: PMC4829423 DOI: 10.7554/elife.13544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species perform rapid limb movements as part of their elaborate courtship displays. However, because muscle performance is constrained by trade-offs between contraction speed and force, it is unclear how animals evolve the ability to produce both unusually fast appendage movement and limb force needed for locomotion. To address this issue, we compare the twitch speeds of forelimb muscles in a group of volant passerine birds, which produce different courtship displays. Our results show that the two taxa that perform exceptionally fast wing displays have evolved 'superfast' contractile kinetics in their main humeral retractor muscle. By contrast, the two muscles that generate the majority of aerodynamic force for flight show unmodified contractile kinetics. Altogether, these results suggest that muscle-specific adaptations in contractile speed allow certain birds to circumvent the intrinsic trade-off between muscular speed and force, and thereby use their forelimbs for both rapid gestural displays and powered locomotion. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13544.001 Many animals court mates and fight with rivals by performing physically elaborate and showy displays. From male fiddler crabs waving their claws to attract females, to the leaping dances of whooping cranes, these displays often involve remarkably fast limb movements. However, in many cases it is puzzling how animals can perform these behaviors, because the muscles that move the limbs are often geared to produce strength for walking, running or flying, and not speed. Indeed, decades of research in animal physiology has confirmed that limb-moving muscles can contract with either great strength or great speed, but never both. A small group of tropical birds called manakins produce different types of courtship displays, including some in which the wings are moved extremely rapidly. To date, nobody has examined if or how the limb muscles can generate such superfast movements. Fuxjager et al. now show that, in two species of manakins that produce rapid wing movements as part of their courtship displays, one of the main wing muscles has evolved to move the wings at superfast speeds. In fact, this muscle can move the wing at speeds that are more than twice as fast as those required for these birds to fly, and appears to be the fastest limb muscle on record for any animal with a backbone. Fuxjager et al. also show that the manakins’ other wing muscles are no different from other birds, and suggest that these muscles are preserved to produce the strength needed for flying. Further studies could now explore how this one muscle can create such superfast wing movements and whether male hormones, like testosterone, play a role in regulating the muscle’s speed. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13544.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Fuxjager
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Franz Goller
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Annika Dirkse
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Gloria D Sanin
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, United States
| | - Sarah Garcia
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
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24
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Cheng B, Tobalske BW, Powers DR, Hedrick TL, Wethington SM, Chiu GTC, Deng X. Flight mechanics and control of escape manoeuvres in hummingbirds I. Flight kinematics. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:3518-3531. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.137539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hummingbirds are nature‘s masters of aerobatic manoeuvres. Previous research shows hummingbirds and insects converged evolutionarily upon similar aerodynamic mechanisms and kinematics in hovering. Herein, we use three-dimensional kinematic data to begin to test for similar convergence of kinematics used for escape flight and to explore the effects of body size upon manoeuvring. We studied four hummingbird species in North America including two large species (magnificent hummingbird, Eugenes fulgens, 7.8 g and blue-throated hummingbird, Lampornis clemenciae, 8.0 g) and two smaller species (broad-billed hummingbird, Cynanthus latirostris, 3.4 g and black-chinned hummingbirds Archilochus alexandri, 3.1 g). Starting from a steady hover, hummingbirds consistently manoeuvred away from perceived threats using a drastic escape response that featured body pitch and roll rotations coupled with a large linear acceleration. Hummingbirds changed their flapping frequency and wing trajectory in all three degrees-of-freedom on stroke-by-stroke basis, likely causing rapid and significant alteration of the magnitude and direction of aerodynamic forces. Thus it appears that the flight control of hummingbirds does not obey the “helicopter model” that is valid for similar escape manoeuvres in fruit flies. Except for broad-billed hummingbirds, the hummingbirds had faster reaction times than those reported for visual feedback control in insects. The two larger hummingbird species performed pitch rotations and global-yaw turns with considerably larger magnitude than the smaller species, but roll rates and cumulative roll angles were similar among the four species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Cheng
- Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Bret W. Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Donald R. Powers
- Biology & Chemistry Department, George Fox University, Newberg, OR 97132, USA
| | - Tyson L. Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | - George T. C. Chiu
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Xinyan Deng
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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25
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Altshuler DL, Bahlman JW, Dakin R, Gaede AH, Goller B, Lentink D, Segre PS, Skandalis DA. The biophysics of bird flight: functional relationships integrate aerodynamics, morphology, kinematics, muscles, and sensors. CAN J ZOOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2015-0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bird flight is a remarkable adaptation that has allowed the approximately 10 000 extant species to colonize all terrestrial habitats on earth including high elevations, polar regions, distant islands, arid deserts, and many others. Birds exhibit numerous physiological and biomechanical adaptations for flight. Although bird flight is often studied at the level of aerodynamics, morphology, wingbeat kinematics, muscle activity, or sensory guidance independently, in reality these systems are naturally integrated. There has been an abundance of new studies in these mechanistic aspects of avian biology but comparatively less recent work on the physiological ecology of avian flight. Here we review research at the interface of the systems used in flight control and discuss several common themes. Modulation of aerodynamic forces to respond to different challenges is driven by three primary mechanisms: wing velocity about the shoulder, shape within the wing, and angle of attack. For birds that flap, the distinction between velocity and shape modulation synthesizes diverse studies in morphology, wing motion, and motor control. Recently developed tools for studying bird flight are influencing multiple areas of investigation, and in particular the role of sensory systems in flight control. How sensory information is transformed into motor commands in the avian brain remains, however, a largely unexplored frontier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L. Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Joseph W. Bahlman
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Roslyn Dakin
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Andrea H. Gaede
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Benjamin Goller
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Paolo S. Segre
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Dimitri A. Skandalis
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Kruyt JW, Quicazán-Rubio EM, van Heijst GF, Altshuler DL, Lentink D. Hummingbird wing efficacy depends on aspect ratio and compares with helicopter rotors. J R Soc Interface 2015; 11:rsif.2014.0585. [PMID: 25079868 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2014.0585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hummingbirds are the only birds that can sustain hovering. This unique flight behaviour comes, however, at high energetic cost. Based on helicopter and aeroplane design theory, we expect that hummingbird wing aspect ratio (AR), which ranges from about 3.0 to 4.5, determines aerodynamic efficacy. Previous quasi-steady experiments with a wing spinner set-up provide no support for this prediction. To test this more carefully, we compare the quasi-steady hover performance of 26 wings, from 12 hummingbird taxa. We spun the wings at angular velocities and angles of attack that are representative for every species and measured lift and torque more precisely. The power (aerodynamic torque × angular velocity) required to lift weight depends on aerodynamic efficacy, which is measured by the power factor. Our comparative analysis shows that AR has a modest influence on lift and drag forces, as reported earlier, but interspecific differences in power factor are large. During the downstroke, the power required to hover decreases for larger AR wings at the angles of attack at which hummingbirds flap their wings (p < 0.05). Quantitative flow visualization demonstrates that variation in hover power among hummingbird wings is driven by similar stable leading edge vortices that delay stall during the down- and upstroke. A side-by-side aerodynamic performance comparison of hummingbird wings and an advanced micro helicopter rotor shows that they are remarkably similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan W Kruyt
- Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, 416 Escondido Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, PO Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elsa M Quicazán-Rubio
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, PO Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - GertJan F van Heijst
- Physics Department, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 516, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Douglas L Altshuler
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 4200-6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T1Z4
| | - David Lentink
- Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, 416 Escondido Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Stager M, Swanson DL, Cheviron ZA. Regulatory mechanisms of metabolic flexibility in the dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis). J Exp Biol 2015; 218:767-77. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.113472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Small temperate birds reversibly modify their aerobic performance to maintain thermoregulatory homeostasis under seasonally changing environmental conditions and these physiological adjustments may be attributable to changes in the expression of genes in the underlying regulatory networks. Here, we report the results of an experimental procedure designed to gain insight into the fundamental mechanisms of metabolic flexibility in the dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis). We combined genomic transcriptional profiles with measures of metabolic enzyme activities and whole-animal thermogenic performance from juncos exposed to four 6-week acclimation treatments that varied in temperature (cold, 3°C; warm, 24°C) and photoperiod (short day, 8 h light:16 h dark; long day, 16 h light:8 h dark). Cold-acclimated birds increased thermogenic capacity compared with warm-acclimated birds, and this enhanced performance was associated with upregulation of genes involved in muscle hypertrophy, angiogenesis, and lipid transport and oxidation, as well as with catabolic enzyme activities. These physiological changes occurred over ecologically relevant timescales, suggesting that birds make regulatory adjustments to interacting, hierarchical pathways in order to seasonally enhance thermogenic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Stager
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - David L. Swanson
- Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
| | - Zachary A. Cheviron
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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28
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Schroeder KL, Sylvain NJ, Kirkpatrick LJ, Rosser BWC. Fibre types in primary ‘flight’ muscles of the African Penguin (
Spheniscus demersus). ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristen L. Schroeder
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK Canada S7N 5E5
| | - Nicole J. Sylvain
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK Canada S7N 5E5
| | - Lisa J. Kirkpatrick
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK Canada S7N 5E5
| | - Benjamin W. C. Rosser
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK Canada S7N 5E5
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Sugar flux through the flight muscles of hovering vertebrate nectarivores: a review. J Comp Physiol B 2014; 184:945-59. [PMID: 25031038 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-014-0843-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 06/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In most vertebrates, uptake and oxidation of circulating sugars by locomotor muscles rises with increasing exercise intensity. However, uptake rate by muscle plateaus at moderate aerobic exercise intensities and intracellular fuels dominate at oxygen consumption rates of 50% of maximum or more. Further, uptake and oxidation of circulating fructose by muscle is negligible. In contrast, hummingbirds and nectar bats are capable of fueling expensive hovering flight exclusively, or nearly completely, with dietary sugar. In addition, hummingbirds and nectar bats appear capable of fueling hovering flight completely with fructose. Three crucial steps are believed to be rate limiting to muscle uptake of circulating glucose or fructose in vertebrates: (1) delivery to muscle; (2) transport into muscle through glucose transporter proteins (GLUTs); and (3) phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase (HK) within the muscle. In this review, we summarize what is known about the functional upregulation of exogenous sugar flux at each of these steps in hummingbirds and nectar bats. High cardiac output, capillary density, and blood sugar levels in hummingbirds and bats enhance sugar delivery to muscles (step 1). Hummingbird and nectar bat flight muscle fibers have relatively small cross-sectional areas and thus relatively high surface areas across which transport can occur (step 2). Maximum HK activities in each species are enough for carbohydrate flux through glycolysis to satisfy 100 % of hovering oxidative demand (step 3). However, qualitative patterns of GLUT expression in the muscle (step 2) raise more questions than they answer regarding sugar transport in hummingbirds and suggest major differences in the regulation of sugar flux compared to nectar bats. Behavioral and physiological similarities among hummingbirds, nectar bats, and other vertebrates suggest enhanced capacities for exogenous fuel use during exercise may be more wide spread than previously appreciated. Further, how the capacity for uptake and phosphorylation of circulating fructose is enhanced remains a tantalizing unknown.
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30
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Velten BP, Welch KC. Myosin heavy-chain isoforms in the flight and leg muscles of hummingbirds and zebra finches. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2014; 306:R845-51. [PMID: 24671242 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00041.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform complement is intimately related to a muscle's contractile properties, yet relatively little is known about avian MHC isoforms or how they may vary with fiber type and/or the contractile properties of a muscle. The rapid shortening of muscles necessary to power flight at the high wingbeat frequencies of ruby-throated hummingbirds and zebra finches (25-60 Hz), along with the varied morphology and use of the hummingbird hindlimb, provides a unique opportunity to understand how contractile and morphological properties of avian muscle may be reflected in MHC expression. Isoforms of the hummingbird and zebra finch flight and hindlimb muscles were electrophoretically separated and compared with those of other avian species representing different contractile properties and fiber types. The flight muscles of the study species operate at drastically different contraction rates and are composed of different histochemically defined fiber types, yet each exhibited the same, single MHC isoform corresponding to the chicken adult fast isoform. Thus, despite quantitative differences in the contractile demands of flight muscles across species, this isoform appears necessary for meeting the performance demands of avian powered flight. Variation in flight muscle contractile performance across species may be due to differences in the structural composition of this conserved isoform and/or variation within other mechanically linked proteins. The leg muscles were more varied in their MHC isoform composition across both muscles and species. The disparity in hindlimb MHC expression between hummingbirds and the other species highlights previously observed differences in fiber type composition and thrust production during take-off.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy P Velten
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; and
| | - Kenneth C Welch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto, Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Welch KC, Allalou A, Sehgal P, Cheng J, Ashok A. Glucose transporter expression in an avian nectarivore: the ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris). PLoS One 2013; 8:e77003. [PMID: 24155916 PMCID: PMC3796544 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose transporter (GLUT) proteins play a key role in the transport of monosaccharides across cellular membranes, and thus, blood sugar regulation and tissue metabolism. Patterns of GLUT expression, including the insulin-responsive GLUT4, have been well characterized in mammals. However, relatively little is known about patterns of GLUT expression in birds with existing data limited to the granivorous or herbivorous chicken, duck and sparrow. The smallest avian taxa, hummingbirds, exhibit some of the highest fasted and fed blood glucose levels and display an unusual ability to switch rapidly and completely between endogenous fat and exogenous sugar to fuel energetically expensive hovering flight. Despite this, nothing is known about the GLUT transporters that enable observed rapid rates of carbohydrate flux. We examined GLUT (GLUT1, 2, 3, & 4) expression in pectoralis, leg muscle, heart, liver, kidney, intestine and brain from both zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) and ruby-throated hummingbirds (Archilochus colubris). mRNA expression of all four transporters was probed using reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR). In addition, GLUT1 and 4 protein expression were assayed by western blot and immunostaining. Patterns of RNA and protein expression of GLUT1-3 in both species agree closely with published reports from other birds and mammals. As in other birds, and unlike in mammals, we did not detect GLUT4. A lack of GLUT4 correlates with hyperglycemia and an uncoupling of exercise intensity and relative oxidation of carbohydrates in hummingbirds. The function of GLUTs present in hummingbird muscle tissue (e.g. GLUT1 and 3) remain undescribed. Thus, further work is necessary to determine if high capillary density, and thus surface area across which cellular-mediated transport of sugars into active tissues (e.g. muscle) occurs, rather than taxon-specific differences in GLUT density or kinetics, can account for observed rapid rates of sugar flux into these tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth C. Welch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Amina Allalou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Prateek Sehgal
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jason Cheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aarthi Ashok
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Mahalingam S, Welch KC. Neuromuscular control of hovering wingbeat kinematics in response to distinct flight challenges in the ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilochus colubris. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 216:4161-71. [PMID: 23948477 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.089383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
While producing one of the highest sustained mass-specific power outputs of any vertebrate, hovering hummingbirds must also precisely modulate the activity of their primary flight muscles to vary wingbeat kinematics and modulate lift production. Although recent studies have begun to explore how pectoralis (the primary downstroke muscle) neuromuscular activation and wingbeat kinematics are linked in hummingbirds, it is unclear whether different species modulate these features in similar ways, or consistently in response to distinct flight challenges. In addition, little is known about how the antagonist, the supracoracoideus, is modulated to power the symmetrical hovering upstroke. We obtained simultaneous recordings of wingbeat kinematics and electromyograms from the pectoralis and supracoracoideus in ruby-throated hummingbirds (Archilochus colubris) hovering under the following conditions: (1) ambient air, (2) air density reduction trials, (3) submaximal load-lifting trials and (4) maximal load-lifting trials. Increased power output was achieved through increased stroke amplitude during air density reduction and load-lifting trials, but wingbeat frequency only increased at low air densities. Overall, relative electromyographic (EMG) intensity was the best predictor of stroke amplitude and is correlated with angular velocity of the wingtip. The relationship between muscle activation intensity and kinematics was independent of treatment type, indicating that reduced drag on the wings in hypodense air did not lead to high wingtip angular velocities independently of increased muscle work. EMG bursts consistently began and ended before muscle shortening under all conditions. During all sustained hovering, spike number per burst consistently averaged 1.2 in the pectoralis and 2.0 in the supracoracoideus. The number of spikes increased to 2.5-3 in both muscles during maximal load-lifting trials. Despite the relative kinematic symmetry of the hovering downstroke and upstroke, the supracoracoideus was activated ~1 ms earlier, EMG bursts were longer (~0.9 ms) and they exhibited 1.6 times as many spikes per burst. We hypothesize that earlier and more sustained activation of the supracoracoideus fibres is necessary to offset the greater compliance resulting from the presence of the supracoracoid tendon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajeni Mahalingam
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada, M1C 1A4
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33
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Muscle fiber characteristics of pectoralis major muscle as related to muscle mass in different Japanese quail lines. Animal 2013; 7:1665-70. [PMID: 23842287 DOI: 10.1017/s1751731113001298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to investigate the muscle fiber characteristics of the pectoralis major muscle, and its relation to growth performance in the random bred control (RBC) and heavy weight (HW) Japanese quail lines at 42 days of age. The HW line had greater body (232.0 v. 100.2 g, P < 0.001) and pectoralis major muscle (19.0 v. 6.2 g, P < 0.001) weights than the RBC line. Color differences were observed between the superficial and deep regions of the pectoralis major muscle, with the superficial region showing a higher value of lightness than the deep region of the RBC or HW lines (P < 0.001). The percentage of the superficial region in the pectoralis major muscle was higher in the HW line compared with the RBC line (46.2% v. 38.0%, P = 0.017). There were no significant differences in the total fiber number in the superficial and deep regions between the two quail lines (P = 0.718). The HW quail line showed a larger mean fiber cross-sectional area (CSA; 375.5 v. 176.6 μm², P < 0.001) and type IIA fiber CSA (243.7 v. 131.9 μm², P < 0.001) than the RBC quail line. The HW line also had greater CSA percentage (60.2% v. 34.2%, P < 0.001) and number percentage (41.6% v. 14.2%, P < 0.001) of type IIB fibers, although there were no significant differences in type IIB fiber CSA between the RBC and HW lines (P = 0.219). Therefore, greater body and muscle weights of the HW line are caused by differences in muscle fiber characteristics, especially the proportion of type IIB fiber and the CSA of type IIA fiber, compared with the RBC line. The results of this study suggest that muscle fiber hypertrophy has more impact on body and muscle weights of the different quail lines than muscle fiber hyperplasia.
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34
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Donovan ER, Keeney BK, Kung E, Makan S, Wild JM, Altshuler DL. Muscle Activation Patterns and Motor Anatomy of Anna’s HummingbirdsCalypte annaand Zebra FinchesTaeniopygia guttata. Physiol Biochem Zool 2013; 86:27-46. [DOI: 10.1086/668697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Reiser PJ, Welch KC, Suarez RK, Altshuler DL. Very low force-generating ability and unusually high temperature-dependency in hummingbird flight muscle fibers. J Exp Biol 2013; 216:2247-56. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.068825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Summary
Hummingbird flight muscle is estimated to have among the highest mass-specific power output among vertebrates, based on aerodynamic models. However, little is known about fundamental contractile properties of their remarkable flight muscles. We hypothesized that hummingbird pectoralis fibers generate relatively low force when activated in a tradeoff for high shortening speeds associated with the characteristic high wing beat frequencies that are required for sustained hovering. Our objective was to measure maximal force-generating ability (maximal force/cross-sectional area, Po/CSA) in single, skinned fibers from the pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles, which power the wing downstroke and upstroke, respectively, in hummingbirds (Calypte anna) and in another similarly-sized species, zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata), which also has a very high wingbeat frequency during flight but does not perform a sustained hover. Mean Po/CSA in hummingbird pectoralis fibers was very low - 1.6, 6.1 and 12.2 kN/m2, at 10, 15 and 20oC, respectively. Po/CSA in finch pectoralis fibers was also very low (for both species, ~5% of the reported Po/CSA of chicken pectoralis fast fibers at 15oC). Force generated at 20oC/force generated at 10oC ('Q10-force' value) was very high for hummingbird and finch pectoralis fibers (mean = 15.3 and 11.5, respectively), compared to rat slow and fast fibers (1.8 and 1.9, respectively). Po/CSA in hummingbird leg fibers was much higher than in pectoralis fibers, at each temperature, and the mean Q10-force was much lower. Thus, hummingbird and finch pectoralis fibers have an extremely low force-generating ability, compared to other bird and mammalian limb fibers, and an extremely high temperature-dependence of force generation. The extrapolated maximum force-generating ability of hummingbird pectoralis fibers in vivo (~48 kN/m2) is, however, substantially higher than the estimated requirements for hovering flight of C. anna. The unusually low Po/CSA of hummingbird and zebra finch pectoralis fibers may reflect a constraint imposed by a need for extremely high contraction frequencies, especially during hummingbird hovering.
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36
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Altshuler DL, Quicazán-Rubio EM, Segre PS, Middleton KM. Wingbeat kinematics and motor control of yaw turns in Anna's hummingbirds (Calypte anna). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 215:4070-84. [PMID: 22933610 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.075044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The biomechanical and neuromuscular mechanisms used by different animals to generate turns in flight are highly variable. Body size and body plan exert some influence, e.g. birds typically roll their body to orient forces generated by the wings whereas insects are capable of turning via left-right wingbeat asymmetries. Turns are also relatively brief and have low repeatability, with almost every wingbeat serving a different function throughout the change in heading. Here we present an analysis of Anna's hummingbirds (Calypte anna) as they fed continuously from an artificial feeder revolving around the outside of the animal. This setup allowed for examination of sustained changes in yaw without requiring any corresponding changes in pitch, roll or body position. Hummingbirds sustained yaw turns by expanding the wing stroke amplitude of the outer wing during the downstroke and by altering the deviation of the wingtip path during both downstroke and upstroke. The latter led to a shift in the inner-outer stroke plane angle during the upstroke and shifts in the elevation of the stroke plane and in the deviation of the wingtip path during both strokes. These features are generally more similar to how insects, as opposed to birds, turn. However, time series analysis also revealed considerable stroke-to-stroke variation. Changes in the stroke amplitude and the wingtip velocity were highly cross-correlated, as were changes in the stroke deviation and the elevation of the stroke plane. As was the case for wingbeat kinematics, electromyogram recordings from pectoral and wing muscles were highly variable, but no correlations were found between these two features of motor control. The high variability of both kinematic and muscle activation features indicates a high level of wingbeat-to-wingbeat adjustments during sustained yaw. The activation timing of the muscles was more repeatable than the activation intensity, which suggests that the former may be constrained by harmonic motion and that the latter may play a large role in kinematic adjustments. Comparing the revolution frequency of the feeder with measurements of free flight yaws reveals that feeder tracking, even at one revolution every 2 s, is well below the maximum yaw capacity of the hummingbirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L Altshuler
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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37
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Filgueras RS, Astruc T, Labas R, Venien A, Peyrin F, Zambiazi RC, Santé-Lhoutellier V. Relationship between histochemical, structural characteristics and oxidative stability of rhea limb muscles. Food Chem 2012; 132:1387-1394. [PMID: 29243627 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.11.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Revised: 11/03/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Histochemical and structural characteristics were investigated in Gastrocnemius pars interna (GN) and Iliofiburalis (IF) limb muscles of Rhea americana. The average myofibre area cross-section was greater in GN than IF muscle (p<0.001), whereas the fibre density per section was higher in IF than GN muscle. The only type of myofibre found in both the rhea limb muscles analysed in this study was fast-twitch oxidative-glycolytic fibres (FOG). Immunolabelling analysis and ultrastructural observation of myofibres confirmed the contractile and metabolic characteristics of rhea myofibres, revealing the absolute fast isoform of myosin heavy chain and the abundance of glycogen and mitochondria inside the cells, mainly in IF muscle. These findings converged with previous results on the biochemical and physicochemical characteristics of rhea meat to provide further evidence that myofibre composition substantially influences the oxidative reactions of the muscle and therefore the meat quality, but more in-depth examination is needed to establish the links between myofibre characteristics, myofibre glycogen concentration and meat stability during storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata S Filgueras
- INRA, Qualité des Produits Animaux UR370, Centre Theix, 63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, France; Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia Agroindustrial, Faculdade de Agronomia Eliseu Maciel, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Campus Universitário s/n, Caixa Postal 354, Pelotas, RS 96010-900, Brazil
| | - Thierry Astruc
- INRA, Qualité des Produits Animaux UR370, Centre Theix, 63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, France
| | - Roland Labas
- INRA, Qualité des Produits Animaux UR370, Centre Theix, 63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, France
| | - Annie Venien
- INRA, Qualité des Produits Animaux UR370, Centre Theix, 63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, France
| | - Frédéric Peyrin
- INRA, Qualité des Produits Animaux UR370, Centre Theix, 63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, France
| | - Rui C Zambiazi
- Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia Agroindustrial, Faculdade de Agronomia Eliseu Maciel, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Campus Universitário s/n, Caixa Postal 354, Pelotas, RS 96010-900, Brazil
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Fernández M, Bozinovic F, Suarez R. Enzymatic flux capacities in hummingbird flight muscles: a “one size fits all” hypothesis. CAN J ZOOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1139/z11-074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Hummingbirds (family Trochilidae) are among the smallest endothermic vertebrates representing an extreme, among birds, in their physiological design. They are unique in their ability to sustain hovering flight, one of the most energetically demanding forms of locomotion. Given that hovering metabolic rate (HMR) in hummingbirds scales allometrically as M0.78(M is mass), we tested the hypothesis that variation in HMR may be correlated with variation in maximal enzyme activities (Vmaxvalues) of key enzymes in glucose and fatty acid oxidation pathways in the flight muscles of four species of hummingbirds ranging in body mass from 4 to 20 g. We also estimated metabolic flux rates from respirometric data obtained during hovering flight. The data are striking in the lack of correlation between Vmaxvalues and flux rates at most steps in energy metabolism, particularly at the hexokinase and carnitine palmitoyltransferase reactions. In the context of hierarchical regulation analysis, this finding suggests that metabolic regulation (resulting from variation in substrate, product, or allosteric regulator concentrations) dominates as the proximate explanation for the interspecific variation in flux. On the other hand, we found no evidence of hierarchical regulation of flux, which results from variation in Vmaxand is based on variation in enzyme concentration [E]. The evolutionary conservation of pathways of energy metabolism suggests that “one size fits all” among hummingbirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.J. Fernández
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, and Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - F. Bozinovic
- Center for Advanced Studies in Ecology and Biodiversity, Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 651-3677, Chile
| | - R.K. Suarez
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9610, USA
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Biewener AA. Muscle function in avian flight: achieving power and control. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2011; 366:1496-506. [PMID: 21502121 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Flapping flight places strenuous requirements on the physiological performance of an animal. Bird flight muscles, particularly at smaller body sizes, generally contract at high frequencies and do substantial work in order to produce the aerodynamic power needed to support the animal's weight in the air and to overcome drag. This is in contrast to terrestrial locomotion, which offers mechanisms for minimizing energy losses associated with body movement combined with elastic energy savings to reduce the skeletal muscles' work requirements. Muscles also produce substantial power during swimming, but this is mainly to overcome body drag rather than to support the animal's weight. Here, I review the function and architecture of key flight muscles related to how these muscles contribute to producing the power required for flapping flight, how the muscles are recruited to control wing motion and how they are used in manoeuvring. An emergent property of the primary flight muscles, consistent with their need to produce considerable work by moving the wings through large excursions during each wing stroke, is that the pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles shorten over a large fraction of their resting fibre length (33-42%). Both muscles are activated while being lengthened or undergoing nearly isometric force development, enhancing the work they perform during subsequent shortening. Two smaller muscles, the triceps and biceps, operate over a smaller range of contractile strains (12-23%), reflecting their role in controlling wing shape through elbow flexion and extension. Remarkably, pigeons adjust their wing stroke plane mainly via changes in whole-body pitch during take-off and landing, relative to level flight, allowing their wing muscles to operate with little change in activation timing, strain magnitude and pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Biewener
- Concord Field Station, Harvard University, 100 Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730, USA.
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Abstract
Two styles of bird locomotion, hovering and intermittent flight, have great potential to inform future development of autonomous flying vehicles. Hummingbirds are the smallest flying vertebrates, and they are the only birds that can sustain hovering. Their ability to hover is due to their small size, high wingbeat frequency, relatively large margin of mass-specific power available for flight and a suite of anatomical features that include proportionally massive major flight muscles (pectoralis and supracoracoideus) and wing anatomy that enables them to leave their wings extended yet turned over (supinated) during upstroke so that they can generate lift to support their weight. Hummingbirds generate three times more lift during downstroke compared with upstroke, with the disparity due to wing twist during upstroke. Much like insects, hummingbirds exploit unsteady mechanisms during hovering including delayed stall during wing translation that is manifest as a leading-edge vortex (LEV) on the wing and rotational circulation at the end of each half stroke. Intermittent flight is common in small- and medium-sized birds and consists of pauses during which the wings are flexed (bound) or extended (glide). Flap-bounding appears to be an energy-saving style when flying relatively fast, with the production of lift by the body and tail critical to this saving. Flap-gliding is thought to be less costly than continuous flapping during flight at most speeds. Some species are known to shift from flap-gliding at slow speeds to flap-bounding at fast speeds, but there is an upper size limit for the ability to bound (~0.3 kg) and small birds with rounded wings do not use intermittent glides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bret W Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
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Altshuler DL, Welch KC, Cho BH, Welch DB, Lin AF, Dickson WB, Dickinson MH. Neuromuscular control of wingbeat kinematics in Anna's hummingbirds (Calypte anna). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 213:2507-14. [PMID: 20581280 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.043497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hummingbirds can maintain the highest wingbeat frequencies of any flying vertebrate - a feat accomplished by the large pectoral muscles that power the wing strokes. An unusual feature of these muscles is that they are activated by one or a few spikes per cycle as revealed by electromyogram recordings (EMGs). The relatively simple nature of this activation pattern provides an opportunity to understand how motor units are recruited to modulate limb kinematics. Hummingbirds made to fly in low-density air responded by moderately increasing wingbeat frequency and substantially increasing the wing stroke amplitude as compared with flight in normal air. There was little change in the number of spikes per EMG burst in the pectoralis major muscle between flight in normal and low-density heliox (mean=1.4 spikes cycle(-1)). However the spike amplitude, which we take to be an indication of the number of active motor units, increased in concert with the wing stroke amplitude, 1.7 times the value in air. We also challenged the hummingbirds using transient load lifting to elicit maximum burst performance. During maximum load lifting, both wing stroke amplitude and wingbeat frequency increased substantially above those values during hovering flight. The number of spikes per EMG burst increased to a mean of 3.3 per cycle, and the maximum spike amplitude increased to approximately 1.6 times those values during flight in heliox. These results suggest that hummingbirds recruit additional motor units (spatial recruitment) to regulate wing stroke amplitude but that temporal recruitment is also required to maintain maximum stroke amplitude at the highest wingbeat frequencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas L Altshuler
- Department of Biology, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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Tobalske BW, Biewener AA, Warrick DR, Hedrick TL, Powers DR. Effects of flight speed upon muscle activity in hummingbirds. J Exp Biol 2010; 213:2515-23. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.043844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Hummingbirds have the smallest body size and highest wingbeat frequencies of all flying vertebrates, so they represent one endpoint for evaluating the effects of body size on sustained muscle function and flight performance. Other bird species vary neuromuscular recruitment and contractile behavior to accomplish flight over a wide range of speeds, typically exhibiting a U-shaped curve with maxima at the slowest and fastest flight speeds. To test whether the high wingbeat frequencies and aerodynamically active upstroke of hummingbirds lead to different patterns, we flew rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus, 3 g body mass, 42 Hz wingbeat frequency) in a variable-speed wind tunnel (0–10 m s−1). We measured neuromuscular activity in the pectoralis (PECT) and supracoracoideus (SUPRA) muscles using electromyography (EMG, N=4 birds), and we measured changes in PECT length using sonomicrometry (N=1). Differing markedly from the pattern in other birds, PECT deactivation occurred before the start of downstroke and the SUPRA was deactivated before the start of upstroke. The relative amplitude of EMG signal in the PECT and SUPRA varied according to a U-shaped curve with flight speed; additionally, the onset of SUPRA activity became relatively later in the wingbeat at intermediate flight speeds (4 and 6 m s−1). Variation in the relative amplitude of EMG was comparable with that observed in other birds but the timing of muscle activity was different. These data indicate the high wingbeat frequency of hummingbirds limits the time available for flight muscle relaxation before the next half stroke of a wingbeat. Unlike in a previous study that reported single-twitch EMG signals in the PECT of hovering hummingbirds, across all flight speeds we observed 2.9±0.8 spikes per contraction in the PECT and 3.8±0.8 spikes per contraction in the SUPRA. Muscle strain in the PECT was 10.8±0.5%, the lowest reported for a flying bird, and average strain rate was 7.4±0.2 muscle lengths s−1. Among species of birds, PECT strain scales proportional to body mass to the 0.2 power (∞Mb0.2) using species data and ∞Mb0.3 using independent contrasts. This positive scaling is probably a physiological response to an adverse scaling of mass-specific power available for flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bret W. Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula, Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Andrew A. Biewener
- Concord Field Station, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Douglas R. Warrick
- Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, 2002 Cordley Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Tyson L. Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Donald R. Powers
- Biology Department, George Fox University, 414 N. Meridian Street, Newberg, OR 97132, USA
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Clark CJ. Courtship dives of Anna's hummingbird offer insights into flight performance limits. Proc Biol Sci 2009; 276:3047-52. [PMID: 19515669 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.0508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioural displays are a common feature of animal courtship. Just as female preferences can generate exaggerated male ornaments, female preferences for dynamic behaviours may cause males to perform courtship displays near intrinsic performance limits. I provide an example of an extreme display, the courtship dive of Anna's hummingbird (Calypte anna). Diving male Anna's hummingbirds were filmed with a combination of high-speed and conventional video cameras. After powering the initial stage of the dive by flapping, males folded their wings by their sides, at which point they reached an average maximum velocity of 385 body lengths s(-1) (27.3 m s(-1)). This is the highest known length-specific velocity attained by any vertebrate. This velocity suggests their body drag coefficient is less than 0.3. They then spread their wings to pull up, and experienced centripetal accelerations nearly nine times greater than gravitational acceleration. This acceleration is the highest reported for any vertebrate undergoing a voluntary aerial manoeuvre, except jet fighter pilots. Stereotyped courtship behaviours offer several advantages for the study of extreme locomotor performance, and can be assessed in a natural context.
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