Commentary: Hierarchical reductionism approach to understanding adaptive variation in animal performance

To what extent do physiological tolerances determine elevational range limits of mammals?

A key question in biology concerns the extent to which distributional range limits of species are determined by intrinsic limits of physiological tolerance. Here, we use common-garden data for wild rodents to assess whether species with higher elevational range limits typically have higher thermogenic capacities in comparison to closely related lowland species. Among South American leaf-eared mice (genus Phyllotis), mean thermogenic performance is higher in species with higher elevational range limits, but there is little among-species variation in the magnitude of plasticity in this trait. In the North American rodent genus Peromyscus, highland deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) have greater thermogenic maximal oxygen uptake (V ̇ O 2 max ${\dot V_{{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}{\mathrm{max}}}}$ ) than lowland white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) at a level of hypoxia that matches the upper elevational range limit of the former species. In highland deer mice, the enhanced thermogenicV ̇ O 2 max ${\dot V_{{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}{\mathrm{max}}}}$ in hypoxia is attributable to a combination of evolved and plastic changes in physiological pathways that govern the transport and utilization of O2 and metabolic substrates. Experiments with Peromyscus mice also demonstrate that exposure to hypoxia during different stages of development elicits plastic changes in cardiorespiratory traits that improve thermogenicV ̇ O 2 max ${\dot V_{{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}{\mathrm{max}}}}$ via distinct physiological mechanisms. Evolved differences in thermogenic capacity provide clues about why some species are able to persist in higher-elevation habitats that lie slightly beyond the tolerable limits of other species. Such differences in environmental tolerance also suggest why some species might be more vulnerable to climate change than others.

Local adaptation, plasticity, and evolved resistance to hypoxic cold stress in high-altitude deer mice

A fundamental question in evolutionary biology concerns the relative contributions of phenotypic plasticity vs. local adaptation (genotypic specialization) in enabling wide-ranging species to inhabit diverse environmental conditions. Here, we conduct a long-term hypoxia acclimation experiment to assess the relative roles of local adaptation and plasticity in enabling highland and lowland deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) to sustain aerobic thermogenesis at progressively increasing elevations. We assessed the relative physiological performance capacities of highland and lowland natives as they were exposed to progressive, stepwise increases in hypoxia, simulating the gradual ascent from sea level to an elevation of 6,000 m. The final elevation of 6,000 m far exceeds the highest attainable elevations within the species' range, and therefore tests the animals' ability to tolerate levels of hypoxia that surpass the prevailing conditions within their current distributional limits. Our results demonstrate that highland natives exhibit superior thermogenic capacities at the most severe levels of hypoxia, suggesting that the species' broad fundamental niche and its ability to inhabit such a broad range of elevational zones is attributable to genetically based local adaptation, including evolved changes in plasticity. Transcriptomic and physiological measurements identify evolved changes in the acclimation response to hypoxia that contribute to the enhanced thermogenic capacity of highland natives.

Local adaptation, plasticity, and evolved resistance to hypoxic cold stress in high-altitude deer mice

A fundamental question in evolutionary biology concerns the relative contributions of phenotypic plasticity vs. local adaptation (genotypic specialization) in enabling wide-ranging species to inhabit diverse environmental conditions. Here we conduct a long-term hypoxia acclimation experiment to assess the relative roles of local adaptation and plasticity in enabling highland and lowland deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) to sustain aerobic thermogenesis at progressively increasing elevations. We assessed the relative physiological performance capacities of highland and lowland natives as they were exposed to progressive, stepwise increases in hypoxia, simulating the gradual ascent from sea level to an elevation of 6000 m. The final elevation of 6000 m far exceeds the highest attainable elevations within the species' range, and therefore tests the animals' ability to tolerate levels of hypoxia that surpass the prevailing conditions within their current distributional limits. Our results demonstrate that highland natives exhibit superior thermogenic capacities at the most severe levels of hypoxia, suggesting that the species' broad fundamental niche and its ability to inhabit such a broad range of elevational zones is attributable to a combination of genetically based local adaptation and plasticity. Transcriptomic and physiological measurements identify evolved changes in the acclimation response to hypoxia that contribute to the enhanced thermogenic capacity of highland natives.

Altitude acclimatization, hemoglobin-oxygen affinity, and circulatory oxygen transport in hypoxia

In mammals and other air-breathing vertebrates that live at high altitude, adjustments in convective O₂ transport via changes in blood hemoglobin (Hb) content and/or Hb-O₂ affinity can potentially mitigate the effects of arterial hypoxemia. However, there are conflicting views about the optimal values of such traits in hypoxia, partly due to the intriguing observation that hypoxia-induced acclimatization responses in humans and other predominantly lowland mammals are frequently not aligned in the same direction as evolved phenotypic changes in high-altitude natives. Here we review relevant theoretical and empirical results and we highlight experimental studies of rodents and humans that provide insights into the combination of hematological changes that help attenuate the decline in aerobic performance in hypoxia. For a given severity of hypoxia, experimental results suggest that optimal values for hematological traits are conditional on the states of other interrelated phenotypes that govern different steps in the O₂-transport pathway.

Adrenergic control of the cardiovascular system in deer mice native to high altitude

Studies of animals native to high altitude can provide valuable insight into physiological mechanisms and evolution of performance in challenging environments. We investigated how mechanisms controlling cardiovascular function may have evolved in deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) native to high altitude. High-altitude deer mice and low-altitude white-footed mice (P. leucopus) were bred in captivity at sea level, and first-generation lab progeny were raised to adulthood and acclimated to normoxia or hypoxia. We then used pharmacological agents to examine the capacity for adrenergic receptor stimulation to modulate heart rate (f_H) and mean arterial pressure (P_mean) in anaesthetized mice, and used cardiac pressure-volume catheters to evaluate the contractility of the left ventricle. We found that highlanders had a consistently greater capacity to increase f_H via pharmacological stimulation of β₁-adrenergic receptors than lowlanders. Also, whereas hypoxia acclimation reduced the capacity for increasing P_mean in response to α-adrenergic stimulation in lowlanders, highlanders exhibited no plasticity in this capacity. These differences in highlanders may help augment cardiac output during locomotion or cold stress, and may preserve their capacity for α-mediated vasoconstriction to more effectively redistribute blood flow to active tissues. Highlanders did not exhibit any differences in some measures of cardiac contractility (maximum pressure derivative, dP/dt_max, or end-systolic elastance, E_es), but ejection fraction was highest in highlanders after hypoxia acclimation. Overall, our results suggest that evolved changes in sensitivity to adrenergic stimulation of cardiovascular function may help deer mice cope with the cold and hypoxic conditions at high altitude.

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High-altitude deer mice have evolved increased aerobic capacity in hypoxia.

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Cardiovascular regulation was examined in normoxia and chronic hypoxia.

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Highland mice had increased capacity for β₁-adrenergic stimulation of heart rate.

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Hypoxia reduced vascular α-adrenergic sensitivity in lowland but not highland mice.

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Cardiac ejection fraction was elevated in highland mice in chronic hypoxia.