Assessing hazardous risks of indoor airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the kitchen and its association with lung functions and urinary PAH metabolites in kitchen workers

Correlation between the non-use of cooking oil fume extractors and bone mineral density in population aged 45 years and older in China: a cross-sectional study

Introduction

The correlation between the non-use of cooking oil fumes (COFs) extractors and bone mineral density (BMD) have not been clarified. Consequently, this study attempted to explore the impact of non-use COFs extractors on BMD in population aged 45 years and older based on a cross-sectional study.

Methods

This study was a cross-sectional study within the framework of an ongoing prospective population-based cohort study in China. The multivariate linear regression models were used to evaluate the correlation between the non-use of fume extractors in family cooking and total lumbar spine (LS), femoral neck (FN), total hip BMD and levels of bone metabolism markers.

Results

A total of 3433 participants were included in the final analyses, of which 2607 (75.93%) participants used fume extractors. The results of models indicated that there were significant correlations of the non-use of fume extractors on total LS BMD (β = -0.024, 95% CI, -0.036, -0.012, p < 0.001), PINP (β = 4.363, 95% CI, 2.371, 6.356, p < 0.001) and ALP (β = 4.555, 95% CI, 2.593, 6.517, p < 0.001) levels.

Conclusions

This study verified that the use of fume extractors is an efficacious measure to prevent LS bone loss. For the sake of public bone health, people should install a fume extractor in the kitchen and use it routinely when cooking.

Assessing Lifetime Cancer Risk Associated with Population Exposure to PM-Bound PAHs and Carcinogenic Metals in Three Mid-Latitude Metropolitan Cities

Lifetime cancer risk characterization of ambient PM-bound carcinogenic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were examined in the cities of Los Angeles (USA), Thessaloniki (Greece) and Milan (Italy), which share similar Mediterranean climates but are different in their urban emission sources and governing air quality regulations. The samples in Milan and Thessaloniki were mostly dominated by biomass burning activities whereas the particles collected in Los Angeles were primary impacted by traffic emissions. We analyzed the ambient PM2.5 mass concentration of Cadmium (Cd), Hexavalent Chromium (Cr(VI)), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), as well as 13 PAH compounds in the PM samples, collected during both cold and warm periods at each location. Pb exhibited the highest annual average concentration in all three cities, followed by Ni, As, Cr(VI), Cd and PAHs, respectively. The cancer risk assessment based on outdoor pollutants was performed based on three different scenarios, with each scenario corresponding to a different level of infiltration of outdoor pollutants into the indoor environment. Thessaloniki exhibited a high risk associated with lifetime inhalation of As, Cr(VI), and PAHs, with values in the range of (0.97-1.57) × 10-6, (1.80-2.91) × 10-6, and (0.77-1.25) × 10-6, respectively. The highest cancer risk values were calculated in Milan, exceeding the US EPA standard by a considerable margin, where the lifetime risk values of exposure to As, Cr(VI), and PAHs were in the range of (1.29-2.08) × 10-6, (6.08-9.82) × 10-6, and (1.10-1.77) × 10-6, respectively. In contrast, the estimated risks associated with PAHs and metals, except Cr(VI), in Los Angeles were extremely lower than the guideline value, even when the infiltration factor was assumed to be at peak. The lifetime cancer risk values associated with As, Cd, Ni, Pb, and PAHs in Los Angeles were in the range of (0.04-0.33) × 10-6. This observation highlights the impact of local air quality measures in improving the air quality and lowering the cancer risks in Los Angeles compared to the other two cities.

Non-carcinogenic and cumulative risk assessment of exposure of kitchen workers in restaurants and local residents in the vicinity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH_s) are often formed when organic substances do not burn completely. This study evaluates the non-carcinogenic and cumulative risks associated with PAH_s levels by testing blood and urine samples in kitchen workers and residents near restaurants in Shiraz, Iran. Metabolites of PAH in the urine samples as well as clinical parameters in the blood samples were measured. The non-carcinogenic and cumulative risk assessments from exposure of the study groups to PAH metabolites were also evaluated. The highest average concentrations of PAH metabolites were related to kitchen workers (2126.7 ng/g creatinine (ng/g cr)). The metabolites of 1-Hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) and 9-Phenanthrene (9-OHPhe) had the highest and lowest mean concentrations, respectively. A direct correlation was observed between the levels of PAH metabolites with malondialdehyde (MDA) and total antioxidation capacity (TAC) levels (p < 0.05). Hazard Index (HI_i) was obtained less than one (HI_i < 1), indicating low-risk negative health impacts on the target groups. Nevertheless, conducting more studies to determine the health status of these people is quite evident.

Pot study using Chlorophytum comosum plants to biomonitor PAH levels in domestic kitchens

In indoor environments, cooking is a major contributor to indoor air pollution releasing potentially harmful toxic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In our study, Chlorophytum comosum 'Variegata' plants were applied to monitor PAH emission rates and patterns in previously selected rural Hungarian kitchens. Concentration and profile of accumulated PAHs could be well explained by cooking methods and materials used in each kitchen. Accumulation of 6-ring PAHs was characteristic in the only kitchen which frequently used deep frying. It also should be emphasized that applicability of C. comosum as indoor biomonitor was assessed. The plant has proven a good monitor organism as it accumulated both LMW and HMW PAHs.

The Content and Emission form of Volatile Organic Compounds from Cooking Oils: A Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis

Cooking oil fumes are full of dangerous chemicals that are bad for human health. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in cooking oil fumes are not only emitted in the form of gas but may also accumulate with other substances in oil fumes and form particulate matter emitted into the atmosphere. Different forms of VOCs can enter different regions of the human body and have varying effects on health. This paper investigated the VOC emission types found in some cooking fumes. The findings demonstrate that organic contaminants from edible oils were released as gas and particle matter, with gas being the predominant component. The fraction of gaseous VOCs steadily declined as oil temperature rose, whereas the proportion of VOCs released as particulate matter gradually rose. It is possible to assume that the increase in oil fume with temperature was caused by the original oil's components volatilizing more frequently under the influence of vapor pressure and that chemical reactions were not the primary cause of oil fume creation.

The Chemical Composition Characteristics and Health Risk Assessment of Cooking Fume Condensates from Residential Kitchens in Different Regions of China

The aim of this study was to explore the similarities and differences of volatile organic pollutants (VOCs) in cooking fumes (COF) of residential buildings in different regions of China, as well as to evaluate their potential health risks. COF condensates were collected from 10 representative cities in China and analyzed by a GC-MS method. Their effects on α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase (AchE), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities were then detected to evaluate potential health risks. A total of 174 kinds of VOCs, including aldehydes, esters, hydrocarbons, alcohols, and carboxylic acid, were identified. There were 59 identical compounds in the northern and southern regions, and 56 common compounds in spicy and non-spicy regions. Health risk assessment results showed that COF condensate could inhibit the activity of α-glucosidase to varying degrees (61.73-129.25%), suggesting that it had a potential risk of causing hypoglycemia. Daily and 3 and 6 month intakes of COF in minors, adults, and the elderly had both activated and inhibited effects on AchE. The activated effect in the southern and spicy areas was higher than that in northern and non-spicy areas, revealing that different regions and dietary habits had different effects on the risk of neurological diseases caused by changes in AchE activity. For minors, adults, and the elderly, COF had different degrees of activation of LDH at different exposure times and regions. Activation in the northern and non-spicy areas was higher than that in southern and spicy areas, suggesting that the health risks caused by changes in LDH activity levels were significantly increased.

Indoor PM2.5 from occupied residences in Sweden caused higher inflammation in mice compared to outdoor PM2.5

We spend most of our time indoors; however, little is known about the effects of exposure to aerosol particles indoors. We aimed to determine differences in relative toxicity and physicochemical properties of PM_2.5 collected simultaneously indoors (PM_{2.5 INDOOR} ) and outdoors (PM_{2.5 OUTDOOR} ) in 15 occupied homes in southern Sweden. Collected particles were extracted from filters, pooled (indoor and outdoor separately), and characterized for chemical composition and endotoxins before being tested for toxicity in mice via intratracheal instillation. Various endpoints including lung inflammation, genotoxicity, and acute-phase response in lung and liver were assessed 1, 3, and 28 days post-exposure. Chemical composition of particles used in toxicological assessment was compared to particles analyzed without extraction. Time-resolved particle mass and number concentrations were monitored. PM_{2.5 INDOOR} showed higher relative concentrations (μg mg^-1 ) of metals, PAHs, and endotoxins compared to PM_{2.5 OUTDOOR} . These differences may be linked to PM_{2.5 INDOOR} causing significantly higher lung inflammation and lung acute-phase response 1 day post-exposure compared to PM_{2.5 OUTDOOR} and vehicle controls, respectively. None of the tested materials caused genotoxicity. PM_{2.5 INDOOR} displayed higher relative toxicity than PM_{2.5 OUTDOOR} under the studied conditions, that is, wintertime with reduced air exchange rates, high influence of indoor sources, and relatively low outdoor concentrations of PM. Reducing PM_{2.5 INDOOR} exposure requires reduction of both infiltration from outdoors and indoor-generated particles.

Graphene-based porous nanohybrid architectures for adsorptive and photocatalytic abatement of volatile organic compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) represent a considerable threat to humans and ecosystems. Strategic remediation techniques for the abatement of VOCs are immensely important and immediately needed. Given a unique set of optical, mechanical, electrical, and thermal characteristics, inimitable surface functionalities, porous structure, and substantial specific surface area, graphene and derived nanohybrid composites have emerged as exciting candidates for abating environmental pollutants through photocatalytic degradation and adsorptive removal. Graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) containing oxygenated function entities, i.e., carbonyl, hydroxyl, and carboxylic groups, provide anchor and dispersibility of their surface photocatalytic nanoscale particles and adsorptive sites for VOCs. Therefore, it is meaningful to recapitulate current state-of-the-art research advancements in graphene-derived nanostructures as prospective platforms for VOCs degradation. Considering this necessity, this work provides a comprehensive and valuable insight into research progress on applying graphene-based nanohybrid composites for adsorptive and photocatalytic abatement of VOCs in the aqueous media. First, we present a portrayal of graphene-based nanohybrid based on their structural attributes (i.e., pore size, specific surface area, and other surface features to adsorb VOCs) and structure-assisted performance for VOCs abatement by graphene-based nanocomposites. The adsorptive and photocatalytic potentialities of graphene-based nanohybrids for VOCs are discussed with suitable examples. In addition to regeneration, reusability, and environmental toxicity aspects, the challenges and possible future directions of graphene-based nanostructures are also outlined towards the end of the review to promote large-scale applications of this fascinating technology.

Organic pollutant exposure and health effects of cooking emissions on kitchen staff in food services

This study was conducted to determine the exposure and health risk to cooking fumes of a total of 88 volunteer kitchen staff aged between 18 and 65 years working in five different kitchens in Ankara. Gas- and particle-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compound (VOCs) concentrations were evaluated in the indoor air of 5 kitchens. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were analyzed to determine the oxidative damage as a result of the exposure to cooking fumes among the cooks and waiters. Significant positive relationships were found between serum MDA levels of the hot kitchen workers and indoor chrysene (Chr), indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene (Ind), and total VOC levels. Although the carcinogenic risks estimated for the exposed population were between the acceptable/tolerable levels, the hazard quotient (HQ) estimated for the exposure to indoor benzene exceeded the safe level. The results of the study revealed that exposure to organic pollutants in indoor air may be a risk factor for the development of oxidative stress, especially in hot kitchen workers. The importance of efficient ventilation in the kitchen has been pointed out to reduce health risks caused by cooking fumes.

Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in individuals living near restaurants: a cross-sectional study in Shiraz, Iran

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are persistent toxic substances that have ubiquitous presence in water, air, soil, and sediment environments, posing serious environmental risks. The present study aimed to investigate the concentrations of urinary PAHs and their health effects in individuals living near restaurants via a health risk assessment analysis. This cross-sectional study was performed on 57 people living near restaurants and 30 individuals as the control group. Five urinary metabolites of PAHs were monitored. In order to evaluate the effects of the urinary metabolites of PAHs on Malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, Total Anti-oxidation Capacity (TAC) in urine samples, and C-Reactive Protein (CRP) in serum samples, regression model was used by considering the effects of the possible confounding factors. Non-carcinogenic health risk was calculated, as well. The median concentration of urinary PAHs was 1196.70 and 627.54 ng/g creatinine in the people living near restaurants and the control group, respectively. Among the metabolites, the lowest and highest mean concentrations were related to 9-OHPhe and 1-OHP, respectively in the two study groups. Moreover, PAHs were significantly associated with MDA level and TAC (p < 0.05). Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Hazard Index (HI) were less than 1. Long-term studies are required to determine the actual health effects by identifying the sources of PAHs emission and to find ways to decrease the production of these compounds.

Association of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with inflammation, oxidative DNA damage and renal-pulmonary dysfunctions in barbecue makers in Southern Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Multiple organ dysfunctions have been linked to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and oxidative stress (OS), oxidative DNA damage, and inflammatory response to PAH have been implicated. The biomarkers of OS (malondialdehyde (MDA), total plasma peroxide (TPP), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), glutathione (GSH), nitric oxide (NO), oxidative stress index (OSI)); 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)); tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)); 1-hydroxy pyrene (1-HOP)), serum and urine creatinine, uric acid (UA), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) were assessed in barbecue makers.

METHODS

One hundred barbecue makers and 50 controls were enrolled into the study. Serum and urine creatinine, UA, TAC, MDA, GSH, NO and TPP were estimated by colorimetry, 8-OHdG and TNF-α by ELISA, PEFR using peak flow meter, 1-HOP by HPLC, eGFR and OSI by calculation.

RESULTS

Barbecue makers had lower TAC, PEFR, and higher TNF-α and OS compared to controls (p<0.05). Higher TNF-α, lipid peroxidation, and lower antioxidants were observed in barbecue makers who had worked for >5years compared to <5years (p <0.05). Increasing number of working hours was associated with higher NO, lipid peroxidation, OS and lower antioxidants in barbecue makers (p <0.05). Positive associations were observed between 1-HOP and TPP (r=0.570, p=0.000), OSI (r=0.299, p=0.035) and negative association between TAC and TNF-α (r=-0.209, p=0.037), MDA (r=-0.265, p=0.008) in barbecue makers.

CONCLUSION

Increased lipid peroxidation, OS, inflammation and depressed antioxidants and lung function observed in barbecue makers suggest increased risk of chronic lung conditions which may be associated with exposure to PAH in barbecue fumes.

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-induced oxidative stress in individuals living near restaurants: a cross-sectional study in Shiraz, Iran

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are environmental pollutants caused by the incomplete combustion of organic matter. The aim of this study was to investigate the concentration of urinary PAHs and their health effects in individuals living near restaurants. This cross-sectional study was done on 57 individuals who were living near 36 restaurants, and 30 individuals as the control group. Five urinary metabolites of PAHs (1-OH pyrene, 1-OH naphthalene, 2-OH naphthalene, 2-OH fluorine, and 9-OH phenanthrenen) were monitored. The total anti-oxidation capacity (TAC), malondialdehyde (MDA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and creatinine were also measured. The mean concentration of the sum of urinary PAHs (ΣOH-PAHs) was 1973.7, and 1687.61 ng/g creatinine in people living near restaurants and control group, respectively. Among the metabolites, the highest mean concentration was related to 1-OH Pyrene in the two study groups. In the individuals living near restaurants, the concentration of PAH metabolites was directly related to MDA and TAC (p < 0.05 for both). The present study findings revealed no significant correlation between PAH metabolites and CRP in the two study groups (P > 0.05). People living near restaurants are more exposed to components in cooking fumes, which may adversely affect their health. Further researches are required to elucidate the effect of PAHs exposure on these individuals' health status.

Urinary monohydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the general population from 26 provincial capital cities in China: Levels, influencing factors, and health risks

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) derived from the incomplete combustion of organic materials are associated with adverse health effects. However, little is known about PAH exposure levels and their influencing factors on a large scale in developing countries. In this study, urinary monohydroxylated metabolites of PAHs (OH-PAHs), including the metabolites of naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene, pyrene, chrysene, and benzo[a]pyrene, were measured in 1154 samples in the general population nationwide from 26 provincial capitals in China. Concentrations of OH-PAHs ranged from 1.39 to 228 μg/L. OH-Nap, metabolite of naphthalene, was the predominant compound, accounting for 65.1% of totals. People in eastern, southwest and northeast China, such as Shanghai, Kunming, Nanning, and Changchun, suffered more PAH exposure than other regions which might associate with sampling time, living habits of the subjects, and the imbalance of economic development and energy consumption across regions. Urinary OH-PAH concentrations were associated with body mass index, gender, and age, and smoking was the main correlating factor. Inhalation and diet might be the main exposure route of human exposure to PAHs, especially for smokers by inhalation. Hazard indices showed that no subject was exposed to PAHs with potential non-carcinogenic risk. Furthermore, the carcinogenic risk was the most significant health effects, with almost all subjects having carcinogenic risk values higher than the acceptable level of 10^-6. Naphthalene and phenanthrene were the main contributors. The results also suggested a possible relationship between PAH exposure and lung cancer in the Chinese population. This first nationwide study on human internal exposure to PAHs provides a large body of scientific information for governmental decision-making about associated human health and the prevention of human exposure to PAHs.

Characterization of cooking-related ultrafine particles in a US residence and impacts of various intervention strategies

Interventions that improve air exchange or filter the air have the potential to reduce particle exposures from residential cooking. In this study, we evaluated the effect of using a range hood, opening kitchen windows, and using portable air cleaners (PACs) in various home locations on the concentrations of ultrafine particles (UFPs) at different times and in different rooms during and after cooking. All experiments were conducted using a standardized cooking protocol in a real-world naturally-ventilated apartment located in the northwest United States. Real-time UFP measurements collected from the kitchen, living room, and bedroom locations were used to estimate parameters of a dynamic model, which included time-varying particle emission rates from cooking and particle decay. We found that 1-min mean UFP number concentrations in the kitchen and living room mostly peaked within 0-10 min after cooking ended at levels of 150,000-500,000 particles/cm3. In contrast, the bedroom UFP concentrations were consistently low except for the window-open scenario. While varying considerably with time, the 1-min UFP emission rates were comparable during and within 5-min after cooking, with means (standard deviations) of 0.8 (1.1) × 1012 and 1.1 (1.2) × 1012 particles/min, respectively. Compared with the no-intervention scenario, keeping the kitchen windows open and using a kitchen range hood reduced the mean indoor average UFP concentrations during and 1 h after cooking by ~70% and ~35%, respectively. Along with the range hood on, utilizing a PAC in the kitchen during and after cooking further reduced the mean indoor average UFP levels during and 1 h after cooking by an additional 53%. In contrast, placing the PAC in the living room or bedroom resulted in worse efficacy, with additional 2-13% reductions. These findings provide useful information on how to reduce cooking-related UFP exposure via readily accessible intervention strategies.

Residential cooking-related PM2.5: Spatial-temporal variations under various intervention scenarios

Some cooking events can generate high levels of hazardous PM2.5. This study assesses the dispersion of cooking-related PM2.5 throughout a naturally-ventilated apartment in the US, examines the dynamic process of cooking-related emissions, and demonstrates the impact of different indoor PM2.5 mitigating strategies. We conducted experiments with a standardized pan-frying cooking procedure under seven scenarios, involving opening kitchen windows, using a range hood, and utilizing a portable air cleaner (PAC) in various indoor locations. Real-time PM2.5 concentrations were measured in the open kitchen, living room, bedroom (door closed), and outdoor environments. Decay-related parameters were estimated, and time-resolved PM2.5 emission rates for each experiment were determined using a dynamic model. Results show that the 1-min mean PM2.5 concentrations in the kitchen and living room peaked 1-7 min after cooking at levels of 200-1400 μg/m3, which were more than 9 times higher than the peak bedroom levels. Mean (standard deviation) kt for the kitchen, ranging from 0.58 (0.02) to 6.62 (0.34) h-1, was generally comparable to that of the living room (relative difference < 20%), but was 1-5 times larger than that of the bedroom. The range of PM2.5 full-decay time was between 1-10 h for the kitchen and living room, and from 0 to > 6 h for the bedroom. The PM2.5 emission rates during and 5 min after cooking were 2.3 (3.4) and 5.1 (3.9) mg/min, respectively. Intervention strategies, including opening kitchen windows and using PACs either in the kitchen or living room, can substantially reduce indoor PM2.5 levels and the related full-decay time. For scenarios involving a PAC, placing it in the kitchen (closer to the source) resulted in better efficacy.

Indoor/outdoor relationships, signatures, sources, and carcinogenic risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-enriched PM2.5 in an emerging port of northern China

Humans spend most of their time in indoor environments, thus a thorough understanding of indoor and outdoor PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) origins for accurate assessment of health risks is required. In the present study, 84 pairs of PM_2.5 samples from indoor (laboratory) and outdoor (campus) locations were collected from April to December 2018 in Caofeidian, China. The annual median concentration of PM_2.5 outdoors was 90.80 µg/m³, 9.08 times higher than the annual standard of WHO guideline (10 µg/m³). Indoor PM_2.5 annual median concentration (41.80 µg/m³) was also higher than the annual standard of ASHRAE guideline (15 µg/m³). The annual median concentrations of ∑₁₈PAHs indoors (44.23 ng/m³) and outdoors (189.6 ng/m³) were highest in winter and descended in the order of autumn > spring > summer. Contrary to summer and autumn, indoor/outdoor concentration ratios were less than 1 in spring and winter, indicating that the contribution of outdoor particle infiltration was more significant than that of indoor sources. The positive matrix factorization model suggested that indoor PAHs came from three sources: vehicle emissions (43%), biomass burning (37%), industry emissions, and coal combustion (20%). Outdoor PAHs came from four sources: petroleum volatilization (39%), vehicle emissions (30%), coal combustion (18%), and biomass burning (13%). The incremental lifetime cancer risk values of indoor and outdoor PAHs in winter exceeded the acceptable level (10^-6), and the carcinogenic risk of adults was higher than that of children and teenagers. These results indicated that simultaneous monitoring of indoor and outdoor PAHs is recommended for accurate assessment of health risk, and the analysis in the current work should be helpful to formulate policies to reduce PAHs emissions.

Probabilistic health risk assessment of exposure to carcinogens of Chinese family cooking and influence analysis of cooking factors

Cooking oil fume (COF) have adverse health effects for people. A probabilistic health risk assessment model with risk parameters as random variables considering the differences in exposure concentration and exposure time of different cooking event was proposed to assess the inhalational incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR). The exposure of carcinogens such as benzene, formaldehyde, PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAHs) and PM_2.5-bound heavy metals (PHMs) of Chinese family cooking was studied and the exposure concentrations of carcinogens were predicted by computational fluid dynamics (CFD). In addition, the influence of five key cooking factors (cooking method, the weight of ingredients (meat and vegetables), type of meat, ratio of meat to vegetables, and type of oil) that affect the generation of COF was explored. The ILCR of COF is assessed comprehensively in present study by the probabilistic health risk assessment model. The result showed that the sum of the risks of assessed carcinogens (total ILCR of COF) determined by Monte Carlo simulation method with a 95% confidence interval (95%CI) is 2.45 × 10^-4 to 1.61 × 10^-3, which far exceeds the acceptable limit of 1.00 × 10^-6. Generally, the ILCR of assessed carcinogens decreases in the following order: PHMs [ILCR (95%CI): 2.08 × 10^-4 to 1.54 × 10^-3] > formaldehyde [ILCR (95%CI): 9.04 × 10^-6 to 6.87 × 10^-5] and PPAHs [ILCR (95%CI): 5.97 × 10^-6 to 4.51 × 10^-5] > benzene [ILCR (95%CI): 2.99 × 10^-7 to 3.00 × 10^-6]. The results indicated that more attention should be paid to the ILCR of PM_2.5. Cooking method significantly affect the ILCR of carcinogens in COF excluding formaldehyde. The ILCRs of COF from water-based cooking methods are greater than those of oil-based cooking ones.

A consensus approach for estimating health risk: Application to inhalation cancer risks

Conducting a risk assessment is challenging because various and contrasting risk indicators are available, which can lead to discrepancies and, sometimes, conflicting conclusions. Constructing and using a consensus risk indicator (CRI) could provide a reliable alternative that is consistent and supports direct comparisons. The goal of this study is to propose a structured and pragmatic approach for constructing a CRI distribution and demonstrate its feasibility and easy implementation when conducting risk assessments. A CRI distribution is constructed as a weighted combination of existing indicators where the weights are obtained by using the overlapping areas of an individual indicator's distribution and an aggregated reference distribution. The approach is illustrated through an assessment of human cancer risk following inhalation exposure. The CRI is constructed using eight risk indicators. The CRI distribution parameters for 199 human carcinogenic chemicals associated with inhalation exposure were determined and are presented in an interactive table. To aid the wider implementation of the CRI approach, a user-friendly and interactive web application, named InCaRisk, was created to facilitate the cancer risk estimation following inhalation exposure. Our approach could be useful for enhancing the quality of regulatory decisions and protecting human health from environmental pollutants; our approach can be applied for a given health outcome, route of exposure and exposure setting.

Household solid fuel use and peak expiratory flow in middle-aged and older adults in China: A large cohort study (2011-2015)

Indoor air pollution caused by solid fuel use in cooking and heating in China is common. The relationship between household solid fuel use and peak expiratory flow (PEF) in middle-aged and older adults in China has not been clarified. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between long-term household solid fuel use (clean for both cooking and heating, solid for either cooking or heating, and solid for both cooking and heating) and PEF changes in middle-aged and older adults using a nationally representative prospective cohort. Covariance analysis was used to compare PEF changes in different indoor air pollution exposure groups. Separate analysis of cooking and heating as well as sub-group analyses by age, sex and smoking status were conducted, linear mixed growth model analysis was used to evaluate the association between cooking fuel type and PEF. A total of 6818 participants were enrolled in the cohort analysis. Results revealed that solid fuel use in cooking and heating separately or conjointly were associated with reduced PEF (solid fuel use in cooking: least square mean [LSM] = 19.9, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 11.5-28.2, P = 0.03; solid fuel use in heating: LSM = 19.4, 95% CI:11.2-27.5, P = 0.04; both solid fuel use: LSM = 17.6, 95% CI: 9.3-25.9, P for trend <0.0001), especially in participants aged >65 years (LSM = -9.22, 95% CI: 27.9-69.52, P for trend <0.0001), females (LSM = -6.41, 95% CI: 19.12-6.30, P for trend <0.0001) and current or former smokers (LSM = -21.55, 95% CI: 36.14 to -6.97, P < 0.02). Compared to that of participants using clean fuels for cooking, PEF of participants using solid fuels were decreased by 3.5 l/min per 2 years over a 4-year follow-up. This cohort study highlights the adverse effects of indoor air pollution on lung function in middle aged and older adults in China.

Grill Workers Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Levels and Excretion Profiles of the Urinary Biomarkers

Grilling activities release large amounts of hazardous pollutants, but information on restaurant grill workers’ exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is almost inexistent. This study assessed the impact of grilling emissions on total workers’ exposure to PAHs by evaluating the concentrations of six urinary biomarkers of exposure (OHPAHs): naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, pyrene, and benzo(a)pyrene. Individual levels and excretion profiles of urinary OHPAHs were determined during working and nonworking periods. Urinary OHPAHs were quantified by high-performance liquid-chromatography with fluorescence detection. Levels of total OHPAHs (∑OHPAHs) were significantly increased (about nine times; p ≤ 0.001) during working comparatively with nonworking days. Urinary 1-hydroxynaphthalene + 1-hydroxyacenapthene and 2-hydroxyfluorene presented the highest increments (ca. 23- and 6-fold increase, respectively), followed by 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (ca. 2.3 times) and 1-hydroxypyrene (ca. 1.8 times). Additionally, 1-hydroxypyrene levels were higher than the benchmark, 0.5 µmol/mol creatinine, in 5% of exposed workers. Moreover, 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene, biomarker of exposure to carcinogenic PAHs, was detected in 13% of exposed workers. Individual excretion profiles showed a cumulative increase in ∑OHPAHs during consecutive working days. A principal component analysis model partially discriminated workers’ exposure during working and nonworking periods showing the impact of grilling activities. Urinary OHPAHs were increased in grill workers during working days.

Biomarkers and indoor air quality: A translational research review

Introduction:

Air pollution is linked to mortality and morbidity. Since humans spend nearly all their time indoors, improving indoor air quality (IAQ) is a compelling approach to mitigate air pollutant exposure. To assess interventions, relying on clinical outcomes may require prolonged follow-up, which hinders feasibility. Thus, identifying biomarkers that respond to changes in IAQ may be useful to assess the effectiveness of interventions.

Methods:

We conducted a narrative review by searching several databases to identify studies published over the last decade that measured the response of blood, urine, and/or salivary biomarkers to variations (natural and intervention-induced) of changes in indoor air pollutant exposure.

Results:

Numerous studies reported on associations between IAQ exposures and biomarkers with heterogeneity across study designs and methods. This review summarizes the responses of 113 biomarkers described in 30 articles. The biomarkers which most frequently responded to variations in indoor air pollutant exposures were high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), von Willebrand Factor (vWF), 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP).

Conclusions:

This review will guide the selection of biomarkers for translational studies evaluating the impact of indoor air pollutants on human health.

Effects of chef operation on oil fume particle collection of household range hood

Kitchen range hood is used to remove cooking oil fume in most of family. The oil fume collection efficiency of range hood is demand to be improved for reaching healthy indoor air quality in residential kitchen. The effects of chef disturbance intensity on the fume particle collection of range hood are quantified by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. The chef operation is considered by introducing a moving momentum source where the collection efficiency of fume particle is defined by the particle residence time. The collection efficiency of fume particle is proposed to be classified as the primary collection efficiency and the secondary collection efficiency of fume particle. The results indicate that the primary collection efficiency of fume particle is decreased by 26.4% in vertical disturbance (VD) mode of chef stirring with the rotation velocity from 0 to 1.5 rps. Meanwhile, the primary collection efficiency is decreased by 8.5% in horizontal disturbance (HD) mode for the same range of the rotation velocity of chef stirring. It is further found that the secondary collection efficiency of fume particle can be used as an indicator of the fume particle concentration of kitchen.

Characteristics and health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in restaurants in Shanghai

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are important precursors of ozone and atmospheric particulates that have attracted extensive attention worldwide. Cooking emissions, the chemical characteristics of which vary dramatically due to different cooking styles, are a main source of ambient VOCs, especially in large cities. This research focused on the emission characteristics of VOCs from six types of restaurants in Shanghai: hot pot (HP), Sichuan cuisine (SC), Cantonese cuisine (CS), seafood (SF), Western fast food (WFF), and authentic Shanghai cuisine (ASC). It was found that HP, which discharged cooking fumes indoors, produced the highest mass concentration of VOCs (1900.2 ± 364.8 μg m^-3), followed by SC (1403.7 ± 403.8 μg m^-3), WFF (656.0 ± 156.9 μg m^-3), SF (638.6 ± 145.1 μg m^-3), CC (632.7 ± 127.7 μg m^-3), and ASC (612.3 ± 51.3 μg m^-3), the cooking fumes from which were collected by emission extraction stacks. Additionally, the VOC species from each cuisine were mainly low carbon substances. Alkanes were the major VOC pollutants from all six cuisines, accounting for 34.4-71.7%. The coefficient divergence values were 0.287-0.593, suggesting that there were differences between the cuisines in the present study. Ozone formation potential and secondary organic aerosol formation potential indicated that O-VOCs and aromatics were the largest contributors. Health risk assessment of VOCs via non-carcinogenic risk values (HQ) and carcinogenic risk values (RISK) indicated that frying, grilling, and stir-frying had relatively large impacts on human health. VOCs collected in emission extraction stacks were significantly higher risk compared with those in the indoor environment, but the RISK score of the HP restaurant was larger, second only to SC. The HQ and RISK values of 1,3-butadiene, acetaldehyde, and trichloroethylene in the HP restaurant all exceeded US EPA standards, indicating that long-term exposure in an HP restaurant would have a significant impact on human health and might carry a potential cancer risk.

Lung cancer risk assessment for workers exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in various industries

BACKGROUND

Millions of workers are exposed to carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) mixtures. The toxicity of PAH mixtures is variable and depends on the composition of the mixture, which is related to the emission sources. Although several indicators exist, the cancer risk estimation associated with occupational exposure to PAHs is poorly known.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the risk of lung cancer associated with PAHs in several industries using the atmospheric concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) as a proxy.

METHODS

A total of 93 exposure groups belonging to 9 industries were investigated. Eight indicators found in the literature were compared to assess risks. A consensual indicator was used to estimate lung cancer risks.

RESULTS

Approximately 30% of the exposure groups were above the maximal risk level of the European Union (10^-4). The risk probabilities were >10^-3 for coke and silicon production; >10^-4 for the manufacturing of carbon products and aluminum production; >10^-5 for foundries and combustion processes; >10^-6 for the use of lubricating oils and engine exhaust emissions; and >10^-7 for bitumen. The risk probabilities were highly variable within industries (from 1 to 1000 likelihood). A total of 27 (95% CI: 0.1-54) contemporary additional lung cancer cases could be expected per year in the French exposed population based on estimations using published data.

CONCLUSION

This study provides an overview of cancer risk estimation in many industries. Despite efforts and changes that had been made to decrease risks, PAHs remain a sanitary threat for people exposed to these pollutants in occupational environments.

Maternal urinary metabolites of PAHs and its association with adverse birth outcomes in an intensive e-waste recycling area

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are well-known carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting chemicals that have been concerned over the past few decades. We aimed to determine the hydroxylated PAH (OHPAH) metabolite concentrations in maternal urine collected from the e-waste-contaminated area of Guiyu and the reference area of Haojiang, China, and to evaluate their health effects on birth outcomes. The median ƩOHPAH concentration was 6.87 μg/g creatinine from Guiyu, and 3.90 μg/g creatinine from Haojiang. 2-OHNap and 1-OHPyr were the predominant metabolites. Residence in Guiyu and recycling in houses were associated with elevated 2-OHNap and 1-OHPyr. Standardized mean difference revealed that compared to low PAH metabolite levels in the first quartile, high PAH metabolite levels in the fourth quartile especially for 1-OHPyr, ƩOHPAHs and sometimes hydroxylphenanthrene compounds, presented a reduced size in birth outcomes (overall SMD: -0.09; 95% CI: -0.15, -0.03), including head circumference, BMI and Apgar 1 score, and increased size in height. After adjusting for confounders in regression models, an interquartile increase in ΣOHPAHs was associated with a decrease of 234.56 g in weight (95% CI: -452.00, -17.13), 1.72 cm in head circumference (95% CI: -2.96, -0.48), 1.06 kg/m² in BMI (95% CI: -1.82, -0.31) and 0.42 in Apgar 1 score (95% CI: -0.66, -0.18), respectively. These findings suggest high exposure to PAHs during pregnancy in e-waste areas, posing a potential threat to neonatal development, which likely can be attributed to direct e-waste recycling activities. Ongoing studies should be continued to monitor human exposure and health, in particular for vulnerable individuals in e-waste-polluted areas.

Beyond the obvious: Environmental health implications of polar polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

The genotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of polar polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (polar PAHs) are believed to surpass those of their parent PAHs; however, their environmental and human health implications have been largely unexplored. Oxygenated PAHs (oxy-PAHs) is a critical class of polar PAHs associated with carcinogenic effects without enzymatic activation. They also cause an upsurge in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in living cells. This results in oxidative stress and other consequences, such as abnormal gene expressions, altered protein activities, mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis. Similarly, some nitrated PAHs (N-PAHs) are probable human carcinogens as classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Heterocyclic PAHs (polar PAHs containing nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen atoms within the aromatic rings) have been shown to be potent endocrine disruptors, primarily through their estrogenic activities. Despite the high toxicity and enhanced environmental mobility of many polar PAHs, they have attracted only a little attention in risk assessment of contaminated sites. This may lead to underestimation of potential risks, and remediation end points. In this review, the toxicity of polar PAHs and their associated mechanisms of action, including their role in mutagenic, carcinogenic, developmental and teratogenic effects are critically discussed. This review suggests that polar PAHs could have serious toxicological effects on human health and should be considered during risk assessment of PAH-contaminated sites. The implications of not doing so were argued and critical knowledge gaps and future research requirements discussed.

Environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, kitchen ventilation, fractional exhaled nitric oxide, and risk of diabetes among Chinese females

Diabetes is related to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), inflammation in the body, and housing characters. However, associations of urinary monohydroxy-PAHs (OH-PAHs) or fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) with diabetes risk in relation to housing characters are unclear. In this study, 2645 individuals were drawn from the baseline survey of the Wuhan-Zhuhai Cohort Study. Associations of diabetes with urinary OH-PAHs or FeNO among cooking participants were estimated using logistic regression models. Among women with self-cooking meals, urinary OH-PAH levels were positively associated with diabetes risk (P < .05); the cooking women with high FeNO (≥25 ppb) had a 59% increase in the risk of diabetes (OR: 1.59, 95% CI: 1.06, 2.38), compared with those with low FeNO (<25 ppb). The cooking women with use of kitchen exhaust fans/hoods had a 52% decrease in the risk of diabetes (OR: 0.48, 95% CI: 0.27, 0.84), compared with those with nonuse of kitchen exhaust fans/hoods. The results indicated that the cooking women had an elevated risk of diabetes, which may be partly explained by an increase in the PAH body burden and higher inflammatory responses. Use of kitchen exhaust fan/hood can be associated with a lower risk of diabetes.

Indoor air quality of everyday use spaces dedicated to specific purposes-a review

According to literature data, some of the main factors which significantly affect the quality of the indoor environment in residential households or apartments are human activities such as cooking, smoking, cleaning, and indoor exercising. The paper presents a literature overview related to air quality in everyday use spaces dedicated to specific purposes which are integral parts of residential buildings, such as kitchens, basements, and individual garages. Some aspects of air quality in large-scale car parks, as a specific type of indoor environment, are also discussed. All those areas are characterized by relatively short time use. On the other hand, high and very high concentration levels of xenobiotics can be observed, resulting in higher exposure risk. The main compounds or group of chemical compounds are presented and discussed. The main factors influencing the type and amount of chemical pollutants present in the air of such areas are indicated.

Identification of informative features for predicting proinflammatory potentials of engine exhausts

BACKGROUND

The immunotoxicity of engine exhausts is of high concern to human health due to the increasing prevalence of immune-related diseases. However, the evaluation of immunotoxicity of engine exhausts is currently based on expensive and time-consuming experiments. It is desirable to develop efficient methods for immunotoxicity assessment.

METHODS

To accelerate the development of safe alternative fuels, this study proposed a computational method for identifying informative features for predicting proinflammatory potentials of engine exhausts. A principal component regression (PCR) algorithm was applied to develop prediction models. The informative features were identified by a sequential backward feature elimination (SBFE) algorithm.

RESULTS

A total of 19 informative chemical and biological features were successfully identified by SBFE algorithm. The informative features were utilized to develop a computational method named FS-CBM for predicting proinflammatory potentials of engine exhausts. FS-CBM model achieved a high performance with correlation coefficient values of 0.997 and 0.943 obtained from training and independent test sets, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The FS-CBM model was developed for predicting proinflammatory potentials of engine exhausts with a large improvement on prediction performance compared with our previous CBM model. The proposed method could be further applied to construct models for bioactivities of mixtures.

Elements of kitchen toxicology to exploit the value of traditional (African) recipes: The case of Egusi Okra meal in the diet of HIV+/AIDS subjects

The Egusi Okra soup is a traditional African meal that is considered of high nutritional value and protective against weight loss. We introduce the concept of "kitchen toxicology" to analyse the recipe of the Egusi Okra soup and highlight possible mitigation measures for toxic and/or antinutritional effects in the wide spectrum of health and nutritional needs of HIV+/AIDS subjects. In particular, we focus on toxicants (environmental contaminants, process contaminants, substances leaching from food contact materials) dysregulating the immune status, as well as on interactions between nutrients, contaminants, and/or antinutrients which may lead to secondary/conditioned nutritional deficiencies or imbalances; in their turn, these can modulate the ability to cope with toxicants, and increase nutritional requirements. Recommendations are given for practices preserving the Egusi Okra soup from such risk factors, identifying points of particular attention during meal preparation, from purchase of raw ingredients through to food handling, cooking, storage, and consumption. The Egusi Okra soup is discussed in the context of a diet that is asked to mitigate complications (weight loss, opportunistic infections) and support antiretroviral therapy in African countries with high HIV/AIDS prevalence. The paper discusses how nutritional interventions benefit of the integration of kitchen toxicology practices in everyday life. Toxicological risk assessment is crucial to understand the history and status of the person exposed to or affected by infectious diseases.

Indoor air pollution and its association with poor lung function, microalbuminuria and variations in blood pressure among kitchen workers in India: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The present study is an attempt to explore the association between kitchen indoor air pollutants and physiological profiles in kitchen workers with microalbuminuria (MAU) in north India (Lucknow) and south India (Coimbatore).

METHODS

The subjects comprised 145 control subjects, 233 kitchen workers from north India and 186 kitchen workers from south India. Information related to the personal and occupational history and health of the subjects at both locations were collected using a custom-made questionnaire. Worker lung function was measured using a spirometer. Blood pressure was monitored using a sphygmomanometer. Urinary MAU was measured using a urine analyzer. Indoor air monitoring in kitchens for particulate matter (PM), total volatile organic compounds (TVOC), carbon dioxide (CO₂) and carbon monoxide (CO) was conducted using indoor air quality monitors. The size and shape of PM in indoor air was assessed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to detect organic or inorganic compounds in the air samples.

RESULTS

Particulate matter concentrations (PM_2.5 and PM₁) were significantly higher in both north and south Indian kitchens than in non-kitchen areas. The concentrations of TVOC, CO and CO₂ were higher in the kitchens of north and south India than in the control locations (non-kitchen areas). Coarse, fine and ultrafine particles and several elements were also detected in kitchens in both locations by SEM and elemental analysis. The FTIR spectra of kitchen indoor air at both locations show the presence of organic chemicals. Significant declines in systolic blood pressure and lung function were observed in the kitchen workers with MAU at both locations compared to those of the control subjects. A higher prevalence of obstruction cases with MAU was observed among the workers in the southern region than in the controls (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Kitchen workers in south India have lower lung capacities and a greater risk of obstructive and restrictive abnormalities than their north Indian counterparts. The study showed that occupational exposure to multiple kitchen indoor air pollutants (ultrafine particles, PM_2.5, PM₁, TVOC, CO, CO₂) and FTIR-derived compounds can be associated with a decline in lung function (restrictive and obstructive patterns) in kitchen workers with microalbuminuria. Further studies in different geographical locations in India among kitchen workers on a wider scale are required to validate the present findings.

Transplacental transfer of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in paired samples of maternal serum, umbilical cord serum, and placenta in Shanghai, China

Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is a high-priority public health concern. However, maternal to fetal transplacental transfer of PAHs has not been systematically studied. To investigate the transplacental transfer of PAHs from mother to fetus and determine the influence of lipophilicity (octanol-water partition coefficient, K_OW) on transfer process, in the present study, we measured the concentrations of 15 PAHs in 95 paired maternal and umbilical cord serum, and placenta samples (in total 285 samples) collected in Shanghai, China. The average concentration of total PAHs was the highest in maternal serums (1290 ng g^-1 lipid), followed by umbilical cord serums (1150 ng g^-1 lipid). The value was the lowest in placenta samples (673 ng g^-1 lipid). Low molecular weight PAHs were the predominant compounds in the three matrices. Increases in fish and meat consumption did not lead to increases in maternal PAH levels, and no obvious gender differences in umbilical cord serums were observed. The widespread presence of PAHs in umbilical cord serums indicated the occurrence of transplacental transfer. The ratios of PAH concentrations in umbilical cord serum to those in maternal serum (F/M) and the concentrations in placenta to those in maternal serum (P/M) of paired samples were analyzed to characterize the transfer process of individual PAHs. Most F/M ratios on lipid basis were close to one (range: 0.79 to 1.36), which suggested that passive diffusion may control the transplacental transfer of PAHs from maternal serum to the fetal circulation. The P/M and F/M values calculated on lipid basis showed that PAHs with lower K_OW were more likely to transfer from mother to fetus via the placenta.

Temperature Effects on Retention and Separation of PAHs in Reversed-Phase Liquid Chromatography Using Columns Packed with Fully Porous and Core-Shell Particles

Effects of temperature on the reversed-phase chromatographic behavior of PAHs were investigated on three columns. The first was the recent C18column (250 mm × 4.6 mm) packed with 5 µm core-shell particles while the others were more conventional C18columns (250 mm × 4.6 mm) packed with fully porous particles. Among the 16 PAHs studied, special attention has been paid to two pairs of PAHs, fluorene/acenaphthene and chrysene/benzo[a]anthracene, which often present coeluting problems. Due to the low surface area of the core-shell particles, lowest retention time of each PAH was highlighted and effects of the temperature on the separation of PAHs were negligible in regard to those using columns packed with fully porous particles. For each PAH studied, it was demonstrated that peaks were symmetrical and may be considered as Gaussian peaks when the column packed with core-shell particle was employed. In the best condition, the separation of PAHs was conducted at 16°C under very low pressure values (670–950 psi = 46–65 bars). Depending on PAHs, the limit of detection ranged from 0.88 to 9.16 μg L−1. Analysis of spiked acetonitrile samples with PAHs at 10 and 50 µg L−1and tap water at 10 µg L−1gave very good recoveries (94%–109.3%) and high precision (1.1%–3.5%).