Design and rationale of the "Sedation strategy and cognitive outcome after critical illness in early childhood" study

Neuropsychological Late Effects and Quality-of-Life Outcomes in Pediatric Brain Tumor Survivors: Role of Pediatric Neurologists in Monitoring and Management

Pediatric brain tumor (PBT) survivors are at significantly increased risk of cognitive, psychosocial, and educational/vocational sequelae that impact health-related quality of life. These complications and health morbidities result in high burden on survivors and their families, particularly those already vulnerable to disparities in health care access and outcomes. Since neurological comorbidities are common in this population, neurologists are uniquely positioned to screen, treat identified symptoms, and connect families with services and resources. A tiered assessment approach can facilitate early identification of concerns and reduce barriers to care. We review common presenting conditions, highlight risk factors, and provide screening tools and recommendations to facilitate comprehensive survivorship care for PBT survivors.

Early Postnatal Exposure to Midazolam Causes Lasting Histological and Neurobehavioral Deficits via Activation of the mTOR Pathway

Exposure to general anesthetics can adversely affect brain development, but there is little study of sedative agents used in intensive care that act via similar pharmacologic mechanisms. Using quantitative immunohistochemistry and neurobehavioral testing and an established protocol for murine sedation, we tested the hypothesis that lengthy, repetitive exposure to midazolam, a commonly used sedative in pediatric intensive care, interferes with neuronal development and subsequent cognitive function via actions on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. We found that mice in the midazolam sedation group exhibited a chronic, significant increase in the expression of mTOR activity pathway markers in comparison to controls. Furthermore, both neurobehavioral outcomes, deficits in Y-maze and fear-conditioning performance, and neuropathologic effects of midazolam sedation exposure, including disrupted dendritic arborization and synaptogenesis, were ameliorated via treatment with rapamycin, a pharmacologic mTOR pathway inhibitor. We conclude that prolonged, repetitive exposure to midazolam sedation interferes with the development of neural circuitry via a pathologic increase in mTOR pathway signaling during brain development that has lasting consequences for both brain structure and function.

Pediatric Intensive Care Unit Patients: Sedation, Monitoring, and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes

The design and conduct of pediatric sedation studies in critically ill patients have historically been challenging due to the complexity of the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) environment and the difficulty of establishing equipoise. Clinical trials, for instance, represent 1 important means of advancing our knowledge in this field, but there is a paucity of such studies in the literature. Accounting for ground-level factors in planning for each trial phase (eg, enrollment, intervention, assessment, and follow-up) and the presence of broader system limitations is of key importance. In addition, there is a need for early planning, coordination, and obtaining buy-in from individual study sites and staff to ensure success, particularly for multicenter studies. This review synthesizes the current state of pediatric sedation research and the myriad of challenges in designing and conducting successful trials in this particular area. The review poses consideration for future research directions, including novel study designs, and discusses electroencephalography monitoring and neurodevelopmental outcomes of PICU survivors.

Association of Acute Respiratory Failure in Early Childhood With Long-term Neurocognitive Outcomes

IMPORTANCE

Approximately 23 700 US children undergo invasive mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory failure annually, with unknown long-term effects on neurocognitive function.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate neurocognitive outcomes of children who survive pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) hospitalization for acute respiratory failure compared with their biological siblings.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Prospective sibling-matched cohort study conducted at 31 US PICUs and associated neuropsychology testing centers. Patients were 8 years or younger with a Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category score of 1 (normal) before PICU admission and less than or equal to 3 (no worse than moderate neurocognitive dysfunction) at PICU discharge, excluding patients with a history of neurocognitive deficits or who were readmitted and underwent mechanical ventilation. Biological siblings were aged 4 to 16 years at testing, with Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category score of 1 and no history of mechanical ventilation or general anesthesia. A total of 121 sibling pairs were enrolled from September 2, 2014, to December 13, 2017, and underwent neurocognitive testing starting March 14, 2015. The date of the final follow-up was November 6, 2018.

EXPOSURES

Critical illness and PICU treatment for acute respiratory failure.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was IQ, estimated by the age-appropriate Vocabulary and Block Design subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale. Secondary outcomes included measures of attention, processing speed, learning and memory, visuospatial skills, motor skills, language, and executive function. Evaluations occurred 3 to 8 years after hospital discharge.

RESULTS

Patients (n = 121; 55 [45%] female patients) underwent PICU care at a median (IQR) age of 1.0 (0.2-3.2) years, received a median (IQR) of 5.5 (3.1-7.7) days of invasive mechanical ventilation, and were tested at a median (IQR) age of 6.6 (5.4-9.1) years. Matched siblings (n = 121; 72 [60%] female siblings) were tested at a median (IQR) age of 8.4 (7.0-10.2) years. Patients had a lower mean estimated IQ than matched siblings (101.5 vs 104.3; mean difference, -2.8 [95% CI, -5.4 to -0.2]). Among secondary outcomes, patients had significantly lower scores than matched siblings on nonverbal memory (mean difference, -0.9 [95% CI, -1.6 to -0.3]), visuospatial skills (mean difference, -0.9 [95% CI, -1.8 to -0.1]), and fine motor control (mean difference, -3.1 [95% CI, -4.9 to -1.4]) and significantly higher scores on processing speed (mean difference, 4.4 [95% CI, 0.2-8.5]). There were no significant differences in the remaining secondary outcomes, including attention, verbal memory, expressive language, and executive function.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Among children, survival of PICU hospitalization for respiratory failure and discharge without severe cognitive dysfunction was associated with significantly lower subsequent IQ scores compared with matched siblings. However, the magnitude of the difference was small and of uncertain clinical importance.

Implementation Science in Pediatric Critical Care - Sedation and Analgesia Practices as a Case Study

Sedation and analgesia (SA) management is essential practice in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Over the past decade, there has been significant interest in optimal SA management strategy, due to reports of the adverse effects of SA medications and their relationship to ICU delirium. We reviewed 13 studies examining SA practices in the PICU over the past decade for the purposes of reporting the study design, outcomes of interest, SA protocols used, strategies for implementation, and the patient-centered outcomes. We highlighted the paucity of evidence-base for these practices and also described the existing gaps in the intersection of implementation science (IS) and SA protocols in the PICU. Future studies would benefit from a focus on effective implementation strategies to introduce and sustain evidence-based SA protocols, as well as novel quasi-experimental study designs that will help determine their impact on relevant clinical outcomes, such as the occurrence of ICU delirium. Adoption of the available evidence-based practices into routine care in the PICU remains challenging. Using SA practice as an example, we illustrated the need for a structured approach to the implementation science in pediatric critical care. Key components of the successful adoption of evidence-based best practice include the assessment of the local context, both resources and barriers, followed by a context-specific strategy for implementation and a focus on sustainability and integration of the practice into the permanent workflow.

Design and reporting characteristics of clinical trials investigating sedation practices in the paediatric intensive care unit: a scoping review by SCEPTER (Sedation Consortium on Endpoints and Procedures for Treatment, Education and Research)

OBJECTIVES

To conduct a scoping review of sedation clinical trials in the paediatric intensive care setting and summarise key methodological elements.

DESIGN

Scoping review.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature and grey references including ClinicalTrials.gov from database inception to 3 August 2021.

STUDY SELECTION

All human trials in the English language related to sedation in paediatric critically ill patients were included. After title and abstract screening, full-text review was performed. 29 trials were eligible for final analysis.

DATA EXTRACTION

A coding manual was developed and pretested. Trial characteristics were double extracted.

RESULTS

The majority of trials were single centre (22/29, 75.9%), parallel group superiority (17/29, 58.6%), double-blinded (18/29, 62.1%) and conducted in an academic setting (29/29, 100.0%). Trial enrolment (≥90% planned sample size) was achieved in 65.5% of trials (19/29), and retention (≥90% enrolled subjects) in 72.4% of trials (21/29). Protocol violations were reported in nine trials (31.0%). The most commonly studied cohorts were mechanically ventilated patients (28/29, 96.6%) and postsurgical patients (11/29, 37.9%) with inclusion criteria for age ranging from 0±0.5 to 15.0±7.3 years (median±IQR). The median age of enrolled patients was 1.7 years (IQR=4.4 years). Patients excluded from trials were those with neurological impairment (21/29, 72.4%), complex disease (20/29, 69.0%) or receipt of neuromuscular blockade (10/29, 34.5%). Trials evaluated drugs/protocols for sedation management (20/29, 69.0%), weaning (3/29, 10.3%), daily interruption (3/29, 10.3%) or protocolisation (3/29, 10.3%). Primary outcome measures were heterogeneous, as were assessment instruments and follow-up durations.

CONCLUSIONS

There is substantial heterogeneity in methodological approach in clinical trials evaluating sedation in critically ill paediatric patients. These results provide a basis for the design of future clinical trials to improve the quality of trial data and aid in the development of sedation-related clinical guidelines.

Are Mothers Certain About Their Perceptions of Recalled Infant Feeding History?

INTRODUCTION

Maternal recall of infant feeding, a potential measurement bias, is used to identify the relationship between mothers' own milk (MOM) feeding and subsequent health outcomes. This study describes maternal recall certainty of MOM feedings at four time periods.

METHOD

In this secondary analysis, mothers of children ages 4-36 months describe infants' MOM feeding and rate certainty of their recall.

RESULTS

MOM was the first feeding for 78.5% of infants and received by 83% the first week, 85% the first month, and 62% the fourth month. Ratings of recall certainty were > 95% for each time period. Recall certainty was significantly different for four time periods (χ² = 9.67, p = 0.02), with no two periods significantly different in post hoc analyses.

DISCUSSION

Maternal recall certainty of infant feeding was high regardless of elapsed time. Measuring maternal recall certainty may be useful in clinical practice and studies linking MOM exposure to subsequent health outcomes.

Pediatric delirium: epidemiology and outcomes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Delirium is a frequent complication of serious medical illness in children. The purpose of this review is to highlight recent data on the epidemiology and outcomes related to pediatric delirium, and discuss prevention strategies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Delirium rates in the pediatric ICU are greater than 25%. Delirium in children is associated with prolonged mechanical ventilation and hospital length of stay, increased costs, and excess mortality. Pediatric delirium may affect postdischarge cognition and quality of life. Recent initiatives targeting universal screening, early mobilization, and minimization of benzodiazepine-based sedation have shown reduction in delirium prevalence.

SUMMARY

Widespread screening is needed in critically ill children to detect and mitigate delirium. The identification of modifiable risk factors has provided an opportunity for delirium prevention. Large-scale longitudinal studies are needed to investigate the long-term sequelae of delirium in children.

Neurologic Outcomes Following Care in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit

Purpose of review

With increasing survival of children requiring admission to pediatric intensive care units (PICU), neurodevelopmental outcomes of these patients are an area of increased attention. Our goal was to systematically review recently published literature on neurologic outcomes of PICU patients.

Recent Findings

Decline in neurofunctional status occurs in 3%-20% of children requiring PICU care. This proportion varies based on primary diagnosis and severity of illness, with children admitted for primary neurologic diagnosis, children who suffer cardiac arrest or who require invasive interventions during the PICU admission, having worse outcomes. Recent research focuses on early identification and treatment of modifiable risk factors for unfavorable outcomes, and on long-term follow-up that moves beyond global cognitive outcomes and is increasingly including tests assessing multidimensional aspects of neurodevelopment.

Summary

The pediatric critical care research community has shifted focus from survival to survival with favorable neurologic outcomes of children admitted to the PICU.