RhoA acts downstream of Wnt5 and Wnt11 to regulate convergence and extension movements by involving effectors Rho Kinase and Diaphanous: Use of zebrafish as an in vivo model for GTPase signaling

Biliary atresia: insights into mechanisms using a toxic model of the disease including Wnt and Hippo signaling pathways and microtubules

BACKGROUND

Mechanisms underlying bile duct injury in biliary atresia (BA) remain unclear and mechanisms of bile duct repair are unknown. This study aimed to explore the roles of microtubule instability and Wnt and Hippo signaling pathways in a biliatresone-induced BA model.

METHODS

Using primary murine neonatal cholangiocytes in both 2D and 3D cultures, and ex-vivo extra hepatic bile ducts (EHBD) which also has peri-cholangiocyte area, we analyzed injury and recovery processes. Injury was induced by the toxin biliatresone and recovery was induced by toxin wash-out.

RESULTS

Microtubule stabilizer paclitaxel prevented biliatresone-induced injury, both to cholangiocytes as well as reduced periductal αSMA stain, this process is mediated by decreased glutathione levels. RhoU and Wnt11 (Wnt signaling) and Pard6g and Amotl1 (Hippo signaling) are involved in both injury and recovery processes, with the latter acting upstream to Wnt signaling.

CONCLUSIONS

Early stages of biliatresone-induced EHBD injury in cholangiocytes and periductal structures are reversible. Wnt and Hippo signaling pathways play crucial roles in injury and recovery, providing insights into BA injury mechanisms and potential recovery avenues.

IMPACT

Microtubule stabilization prevents cholangiocyte injury and lumen obstruction in a toxic model of biliary atresia (biliatresone induced). Early stages of biliatresone-induced injury, affecting both cholangiocytes and periductal structures, are reversible. Both Wnt and Hippo signaling pathways play a crucial role in bile duct injury and recovery, with a noted interplay between the two. Understanding mechanisms of cholangiocyte recovery is imperative to unveil potential therapeutic avenues.

Specific CaMKIIs mediate convergent extension cell movements in early zebrafish development

BACKGROUND

Noncanonical Wnts are morphogens that can elevate intracellular Ca2+, activate the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, CaMKII, and promote cell movements during vertebrate gastrulation.

RESULTS

Zebrafish express seven CaMKII genes during embryogenesis; two of these, camk2b1 and camk2g1, are necessary for convergent extension (CE) cell movements. CaMKII morphant phenotypes were observed as early as epiboly. At the 1-3 somite stage, neuroectoderm and paraxial cells remained unconverged in both morphants. Later, somites lacked their stereotypical shape and were wider, more closely spaced, and body gap angles increased. At 24hpf, somite compression and notochord undulation coincided with a shorter and broader body axis. A camk2b1 crispant was generated which phenocopied the camk2b1 morphant. The levels of cell proliferation, apoptosis and paraxial and neuroectodermal markers were unchanged in morphants. Hyperactivation of CaMKII during gastrulation by transient pharmacological intervention (thapsigargin) also caused CE defects. Mosaically expressed dominant-negative CaMKII recapitulated these phenotypes and showed significant midline bifurcation. Finally, the introduction of CaMKII partially rescued Wnt11 morphant phenotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these data support a model whereby cyclically activated CaMKII encoded from two genes enables cell migration during the process of CE.

The molecular mechanisms of glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis regulating chondrogenesis and endochondral ossification

Disorders of chondrocyte differentiation and endochondral osteogenesis are major underlying factors in skeletal developmental disorders, including tibial dysplasia (TD), osteoarthritis (OA), chondrodysplasia (ACH), and multiple epiphyseal dysplasia (MED). Understanding the cellular and molecular pathogenesis of these disorders is crucial for addressing orthopedic diseases resulting from impaired glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Glycosaminoglycan is a broad term that refers to the glycan component of proteoglycan macromolecules. It is an essential component of the cartilage extracellular matrix and plays a vital role in various biological processes, including gene transcription, signal transduction, and chondrocyte differentiation. Recent studies have demonstrated that glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis plays a regulatory role in chondrocyte differentiation and endochondral osteogenesis by modulating various growth factors and signaling molecules. For instance, glycosaminoglycan is involved in mediating pathways such as Wnt, TGF-β, FGF, Ihh-PTHrP, and O-GlcNAc glycosylation, interacting with transcription factors SOX9, BMPs, TGF-β, and Runx2 to regulate chondrocyte differentiation and endochondral osteogenesis. To propose innovative approaches for addressing orthopedic diseases caused by impaired glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis, we conducted a comprehensive review of the molecular mechanisms underlying chondrocyte glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis, which regulates chondrocyte differentiation and endochondral osteogenesis. Our analysis considers the role of genes, glycoproteins, and associated signaling pathways during chondrogenesis and endochondral ossification.

Non-canonical WNT5A-ROR signaling: New perspectives on an ancient developmental pathway

Deciphering non-canonical WNT signaling has proven to be both fascinating and challenging. Discovered almost 30 years ago, non-canonical WNT ligands signal independently of the transcriptional co-activator β-catenin to regulate a wide range of morphogenetic processes during development. The molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie non-canonical WNT function, however, remain nebulous. Recent results from various model systems have converged to define a core non-canonical WNT pathway consisting of the prototypic non-canonical WNT ligand, WNT5A, the receptor tyrosine kinase ROR, the seven transmembrane receptor Frizzled and the cytoplasmic scaffold protein Dishevelled. Importantly, mutations in each of these signaling components cause Robinow syndrome, a congenital disorder characterized by profound tissue morphogenetic abnormalities. Moreover, dysregulation of the pathway has also been linked to cancer metastasis. As new knowledge concerning the WNT5A-ROR pathway continues to grow, modeling these mutations will likely provide crucial insights into both the physiological regulation of the pathway and the etiology of WNT5A-ROR-driven diseases.

Small GTPases and Their Regulators: A Leading Road toward Blood Vessel Development in Zebrafish

Members of the Ras superfamily have been found to perform several functions leading to the development of eukaryotes. These small GTPases are divided into five major subfamilies, and their regulators can "turn on" and "turn off" signals. Recent studies have shown that this superfamily of proteins has various roles in the process of vascular development, such as vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Here, we discuss the role of these subfamilies in the development of the vascular system in zebrafish.

A zebrafish embryo screen utilizing gastrulation identifies the HTR2C inhibitor pizotifen as a suppressor of EMT-mediated metastasis

Metastasis is responsible for approximately 90% of cancer-associated mortality but few models exist that allow for rapid and effective screening of anti-metastasis drugs. Current mouse models of metastasis are too expensive and time consuming to use for rapid and high-throughput screening. Therefore, we created a unique screening concept utilizing conserved mechanisms between zebrafish gastrulation and cancer metastasis for identification of potential anti-metastatic drugs. We hypothesized that small chemicals that interrupt zebrafish gastrulation might also suppress metastatic progression of cancer cells and developed a phenotype-based chemical screen to test the hypothesis. The screen used epiboly, the first morphogenetic movement in gastrulation, as a marker and enabled 100 chemicals to be tested in 5 hr. The screen tested 1280 FDA-approved drugs and identified pizotifen, an antagonist for serotonin receptor 2C (HTR2C) as an epiboly-interrupting drug. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of HTR2C suppressed metastatic progression in a mouse model. Blocking HTR2C with pizotifen restored epithelial properties to metastatic cells through inhibition of Wnt signaling. In contrast, HTR2C induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition through activation of Wnt signaling and promoted metastatic dissemination of human cancer cells in a zebrafish xenotransplantation model. Taken together, our concept offers a novel platform for discovery of anti-metastasis drugs.

Vangl2 promotes the formation of long cytonemes to enable distant Wnt/β-catenin signaling

Wnt signaling regulates cell proliferation and cell differentiation as well as migration and polarity during development. However, it is still unclear how the Wnt ligand distribution is precisely controlled to fulfil these functions. Here, we show that the planar cell polarity protein Vangl2 regulates the distribution of Wnt by cytonemes. In zebrafish epiblast cells, mouse intestinal telocytes and human gastric cancer cells, Vangl2 activation generates extremely long cytonemes, which branch and deliver Wnt protein to multiple cells. The Vangl2-activated cytonemes increase Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the surrounding cells. Concordantly, Vangl2 inhibition causes fewer and shorter cytonemes to be formed and reduces paracrine Wnt/β-catenin signaling. A mathematical model simulating these Vangl2 functions on cytonemes in zebrafish gastrulation predicts a shift of the signaling gradient, altered tissue patterning, and a loss of tissue domain sharpness. We confirmed these predictions during anteroposterior patterning in the zebrafish neural plate. In summary, we demonstrate that Vangl2 is fundamental to paracrine Wnt/β-catenin signaling by controlling cytoneme behaviour.

Salt causes aging-associated hypertension via vascular Wnt5a under Klotho deficiency

Aging is associated with a high prevalence of hypertension due to elevated susceptibility of BP to dietary salt, but its mechanism is unknown. Serum levels of Klotho, an anti-aging factor, decline with age. We found that high salt (HS) increased BP in aged mice and young heterozygous Klotho-knockout mice and was associated with increased vascular expression of Wnt5a and p-MYPT1, which indicate RhoA activity. Not only the Wnt inhibitor LGK974 and the Wnt5a antagonist Box5 but Klotho supplementation inhibits HS-induced BP elevation, similarly to the Rho kinase inhibitor fasudil, associated with reduced p-MYPT1 expression in both groups of mice. In cultured vascular smooth muscle cells, Wnt5a and angiotensin II (Ang II) increased p-MYPT1 expression but knockdown of Wnt5a with siRNA abolished Ang II-induced upregulation of p-MYPT1, indicating that Wnt5a is indispensable for Ang II-induced Rho/ROCK activation. Notably, Klotho inhibited Wnt5a- and Ang II-induced upregulation of p-MYPT1. Consistently, Klotho supplementation ameliorated HS-induced augmentation of reduced renal blood flow (RBF) response to intra-arterial infusion of Ang II and the thromboxane A2 analog U46619, which activated RhoA in both groups of mice and were associated with the inhibition of BP elevation, suggesting that abnormal response of RBF to Ang II contributes to HS-induced BP elevation. Thus, Klotho deficiency underlies aging-associated salt-sensitive hypertension through vascular non-canonical Wnt5a/RhoA activation.

Dysregulation of Rho GTPases in orofacial cleft patients-derived primary cells leads to impaired cell migration, a potential cause of cleft/lip palate development

Cleft lip and/or palate are a split in the lip, the palate or both. This results from the inability of lip buds and palatal shelves to properly migrate and assemble during embryogenesis. By extracting primary cells from a cleft patient, we aimed at offering a better understanding of the signaling mechanisms and interacting molecules involved in the lip and palate formation and fusion. With Rho GTPases being indirectly associated with cleft occurrence, we investigated the role of the latter in both. First, whole exome sequencing was conducted in a patient with cleft lip and palate. Primary fibroblastic cells originating from the upper right gingiva region were extracted and distinct cellular populations from two individuals were obtained: a control with no cleft phenotype and a patient with a cleft lip and palate. The genetic data showed three candidate variables in ARHGEF18, EPDR1, and CUL7. Next, the molecular data showed no significant change in proliferation rates between healthy patient cells and CL/P patient cells. However, CL/P patient cells showed decreased migration, increased adhesion and presented with a more elongated phenotype. Additionally, RhoA activity was upregulated in these cells, whereas Cdc42 activity was downregulated, resulting in loss of polarity. Our results are suggestive of a possible correlation between a dysregulation of Rho GTPases and the observed phenotype of cleft lip and palate patient cells. This insight into the intramolecular aspect of this disorder helps link the genetic defect with the observed phenotype and offers a possible mechanism by which CL/P occurs.

Rho GTPases Signaling in Zebrafish Development and Disease

Cells encounter countless external cues and the specificity of their responses is translated through a myriad of tightly regulated intracellular signals. For this, Rho GTPases play a central role and transduce signals that contribute to fundamental cell dynamic and survival events. Here, we review our knowledge on how zebrafish helped us understand the role of some of these proteins in a multitude of in vivo cellular behaviors. Zebrafish studies offer a unique opportunity to explore the role and more specifically the spatial and temporal dynamic of Rho GTPases activities within a complex environment at a level of details unachievable in any other vertebrate organism.

Wnt5b integrates Fak1a to mediate gastrulation cell movements via Rac1 and Cdc42

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) mediates vital cellular pathways during development. Despite its necessity, how FAK regulates and integrates with other signals during early embryogenesis remains poorly understood. We found that the loss of Fak1a impaired epiboly, convergent extension and hypoblast cell migration in zebrafish embryos. We also observed a clear disturbance in cortical actin at the blastoderm margin and distribution of yolk syncytial nuclei. In addition, we investigated a possible link between Fak1a and a well-known gastrulation regulator, Wnt5b, and revealed that the overexpression of fak1a or wnt5b could cross-rescue convergence defects induced by a wnt5b or fak1a antisense morpholino (MO), respectively. Wnt5b and Fak1a were shown to converge in regulating Rac1 and Cdc42, which could synergistically rescue wnt5b and fak1a morphant phenotypes. Furthermore, we generated several alleles of fak1a mutants using CRISPR/Cas9, but those mutants only revealed mild gastrulation defects. However, injection of a subthreshold level of the wnt5b MO induced severe gastrulation defects in fak1a mutants, which suggested that the upregulated expression of wnt5b might complement the loss of Fak1a. Collectively, we demonstrated that a functional interaction between Wnt and FAK signalling mediates gastrulation cell movements via the possible regulation of Rac1 and Cdc42 and subsequent actin dynamics.

WNT5A-Induced Activation of the Protein Kinase C Substrate MARCKS Is Required for Melanoma Cell Invasion

WNT5A is a well-known mediator of melanoma cell invasion and metastasis via its ability to activate protein kinase C (PKC), which is monitored by phosphorylation of the endogenous PKC substrate myristoylated alanine-rich c-kinase substrate (MARCKS). However, a possible direct contribution of MARCKS in WNT5A-mediated melanoma cell invasion has not been investigated. Analyses of melanoma patient databases suggested that similar to WNT5A expression, MARCKS expression appears to be associated with increased metastasis. A relationship between the two is suggested by the findings that recombinant WNT5A (rWNT5A) induces both increased expression and phosphorylation of MARCKS, whereas WNT5A silencing does the opposite. Moreover, WNT5A-induced invasion of melanoma cells was blocked by siRNA targeting MARCKS, indicating a crucial role of MARCKS expression and/or its phosphorylation. Next, we employed a peptide inhibitor of MARCKS phosphorylation that did not affect MARCKS expression and found that it abolished WNT5A-induced melanoma cell invasion. Similarly, rWNT5A induced the accumulation of phosphorylated MARCKS in membrane protrusions at the leading edge of melanoma cells. Our results demonstrate that WNT5A-induced phosphorylation of MARCKS is not only an indicator of PKC activity but also a crucial regulator of the metastatic behavior of melanoma and therefore an attractive future antimetastatic target in melanoma patients.

Evolutionary emergence of the rac3b/rfng/sgca regulatory cluster refined mechanisms for hindbrain boundaries formation

Developmental programs often rely on parallel morphogenetic mechanisms that guarantee precise tissue architecture. While redundancy constitutes an obvious selective advantage, little is known on how novel morphogenetic mechanisms emerge during evolution. In zebrafish, rhombomeric boundaries behave as an elastic barrier, preventing cell intermingling between adjacent compartments. Here, we identify the fundamental role of the small-GTPase Rac3b in actomyosin cable assembly at hindbrain boundaries. We show that the novel rac3b/rfng/sgca regulatory cluster, which is specifically expressed at the boundaries, emerged in the Ostariophysi superorder by chromosomal rearrangement that generated new cis-regulatory interactions. By combining 4C-seq, ATAC-seq, transgenesis, and CRISPR-induced deletions, we characterized this regulatory domain, identifying hindbrain boundary-specific cis-regulatory elements. Our results suggest that the capacity of boundaries to act as an elastic mesh for segregating rhombomeric cells evolved by cooption of critical genes to a novel regulatory block, refining the mechanisms for hindbrain segmentation.

Integrin α8 and Pcdh15 act as a complex to regulate cilia biogenesis in sensory cells

The way an organism perceives its surroundings depends on sensory systems and the highly specialized cilia present in the neurosensory cells. Here, we describe the existence of an integrin α8 (Itga8) and protocadherin-15a (Pcdh15a) ciliary complex in neuromast hair cells in a zebrafish model. Depletion of the complex via downregulation or loss-of-function mutation leads to a dysregulation of cilia biogenesis and endocytosis. At the molecular level, removal of the complex blocks the access of Rab8a into the cilia as well as normal recruitment of ciliary cargo by centriolar satellites. These defects can be reversed by the introduction of a constitutively active form of Rhoa, suggesting that Itga8-Pcdh15a complex mediates its effect through the activation of this small GTPase and probably by the regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics. Our data points to a novel mechanism involved in the regulation of sensory cilia development, with the corresponding implications for normal sensory function.

The guanine nucleotide exchange factor Net1 facilitates the specification of dorsal cell fates in zebrafish embryos by promoting maternal β-catenin activation

Wnt/β-catenin signaling is essential for the initiation of dorsal-ventral patterning during vertebrate embryogenesis. Maternal β-catenin accumulates in dorsal marginal nuclei during cleavage stages, but its critical target genes essential for dorsalization are silent until mid-blastula transition (MBT). Here, we find that zebrafish net1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor, is specifically expressed in dorsal marginal blastomeres after MBT, and acts as a zygotic factor to promote the specification of dorsal cell fates. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments show that the GEF activity of Net1 is required for the activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in zebrafish embryos and mammalian cells. Net1 dissociates and activates PAK1 dimers, and PAK1 kinase activation causes phosphorylation of S675 of β-catenin after MBT, which ultimately leads to the transcription of downstream target genes. In summary, our results reveal that Net1-regulated β-catenin activation plays a crucial role in the dorsal axis formation during zebrafish development.

Role of ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 2 in the midline axis formation of zebrafish

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a unique bioactive lysophospholipid that induces pleiotropic effects in various cell types and organisms by acting on its specific receptors. LPA is mainly synthetised extracellularly by the ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 2/autotaxin (enpp2). Altered LPA signalling is associated with embryonic abnormalities, suggesting critical roles for LPA during development. However, the role of LPA signalling during early embryogenesis is not well established. We demonstrate that enpp2/LPA signalling in the early zebrafish embryo results in altered axis and midline formation, defects in left right (L-R) patterning, ciliogenesis of the Kupffer’s vesicle (KV), through the modulation of cell migration during gastrulation in a lpar_1–3 Rho/ROCK-dependant manner. Overall, this study demonstrates an essential role of enpp2/LPA signalling during early embryogenesis.

A GAL4-inducible transgenic tool kit for the in vivo modulation of Rho GTPase activity in zebrafish

BACKGROUND

Rho GTPases are small monomeric G-proteins that play key roles in many cellular processes. Due to Rho GTPases' widespread expression and broad functions, analyses of their function during late development require tissue-specific modulation of activity. The GAL4/UAS system provides an excellent tool for investigating the function of Rho GTPases in vivo. With this in mind, we created a transgenic tool kit enabling spatial and temporal modulation of Rho GTPase activity in zebrafish.

RESULTS

Transgenic constructs were assembled driving dominant-negative, constitutively active, and wild-type versions of Cdc42, RhoA, and Rac1 under 10XUAS control. The self-cleaving viral peptide F2A was utilized to allow bicistronic expression of a fluorescent reporter and Rho GTPase. Global heat shock of hsp70l:gal4(+) transgenic embryos confirmed GAL4-specific construct expression. Western blot analysis indicated myc-tagged Rho GTPases were expressed only in the presence of GAL4. Construct expression was confined to proper cells when combined with pou4f3:gal4 or ptf1a:gal4. Finally, transgene expression resulted in reproducible defects in lens formation, indicating that the transgenes are functional in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

We generated and validated 10 transgenic lines, creating a versatile tool kit for the temporal-spatial modulation of Cdc42, RhoA, and Rac1 activity in vivo. These lines will enable systematic analysis of Rho GTPase function in any tissue of interest. Developmental Dynamics 245:844-853, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Functional Investigation of a Non-coding Variant Associated with Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis in Zebrafish: Elevated Expression of the Ladybird Homeobox Gene Causes Body Axis Deformation

Previously, we identified an adolescent idiopathic scoliosis susceptibility locus near human ladybird homeobox 1 (LBX1) and FLJ41350 by a genome-wide association study. Here, we characterized the associated non-coding variant and investigated the function of these genes. A chromosome conformation capture assay revealed that the genome region with the most significantly associated single nucleotide polymorphism (rs11190870) physically interacted with the promoter region of LBX1-FLJ41350. The promoter in the direction of LBX1, combined with a 590-bp region including rs11190870, had higher transcriptional activity with the risk allele than that with the non-risk allele in HEK 293T cells. The ubiquitous overexpression of human LBX1 or either of the zebrafish lbx genes (lbx1a, lbx1b, and lbx2), but not FLJ41350, in zebrafish embryos caused body curvature followed by death prior to vertebral column formation. Such body axis deformation was not observed in transcription activator-like effector nucleases mediated knockout zebrafish of lbx1b or lbx2. Mosaic expression of lbx1b driven by the GATA2 minimal promoter and the lbx1b enhancer in zebrafish significantly alleviated the embryonic lethal phenotype to allow observation of the later onset of the spinal curvature with or without vertebral malformation. Deformation of the embryonic body axis by lbx1b overexpression was associated with defects in convergent extension, which is a component of the main axis-elongation machinery in gastrulating embryos. In embryos overexpressing lbx1b, wnt5b, a ligand of the non-canonical Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway, was significantly downregulated. Injection of mRNA for wnt5b or RhoA, a key downstream effector of Wnt/PCP signaling, rescued the defective convergent extension phenotype and attenuated the lbx1b-induced curvature of the body axis. Thus, our study presents a novel pathological feature of LBX1 and its zebrafish homologs in body axis deformation at various stages of embryonic and subsequent growth in zebrafish.

Scoliosis is the most common type of spinal deformity with a lateral spinal curvature of at least 10 degrees, affecting 2–4% of the population. Scoliosis caused by a primary problem related to the spine itself is classified into congenital scoliosis (CS) and idiopathic scoliosis (IS). Among these, adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS), the most common form of scoliosis, is known as a common polygenic disease. Severe curving of the spine in scoliosis leads to profound psychological and social impacts, but etiology-based therapies have not been established since the precise pathological mechanisms of both IS and CS remain undefined. Previously, we identified an AIS susceptibility locus near human ladybird homeobox 1 (LBX1) by a genome-wide association study. Here, we report the functional characterization of the most significantly associated single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs11190870 and LBX1 as well as its zebrafish homologues. Overexpression of LBX1 and zebrafish lbx genes caused lateral body curvature in association with the impairment of non-canonical Wnt/planar cell polarity signaling. Thus, our study presents a novel pathological feature of LBX1 in body axis deformation.

Tyrosine glycosylation of Rho by Yersinia toxin impairs blastomere cell behaviour in zebrafish embryos

Yersinia species cause zoonotic infections, including enterocolitis and plague. Here we studied Yersinia ruckeri antifeeding prophage 18 (Afp18), the toxin component of the phage tail-derived protein translocation system Afp, which causes enteric redmouth disease in salmonid fish species. Here we show that microinjection of the glycosyltransferase domain Afp18^G into zebrafish embryos blocks cytokinesis, actin-dependent motility and cell blebbing, eventually abrogating gastrulation. In zebrafish ZF4 cells, Afp18^G depolymerizes actin stress fibres by mono-O-GlcNAcylation of RhoA at tyrosine-34; thereby Afp18^G inhibits RhoA activation by guanine nucleotide exchange factors, and blocks RhoA, but not Rac and Cdc42 downstream signalling. The crystal structure of tyrosine-GlcNAcylated RhoA reveals an open conformation of the effector loop distinct from recently described structures of GDP- or GTP-bound RhoA. Unravelling of the molecular mechanism of the toxin component Afp18 as glycosyltransferase opens new perspectives in studies of phage tail-derived protein translocation systems, which are preserved from archaea to human pathogenic prokaryotes.

Yersinia ruckeri is the source of redmouth disease in fish. Here the authors analysed the Yersinia toxin Afp18 and show that it acts to inhibit RhoA activation by glycosylating a distinct tyrosine residue inducing a signalling incompetent structural conformation.

Wnt affects symmetry and morphogenesis during post-embryonic development in colonial chordates

Background

Wnt signaling is one of the earliest and most highly conserved regulatory pathways for the establishment of the body axes during regeneration and early development. In regeneration, body axes determination occurs independently of tissue rearrangement and early developmental cues. Modulation of the Wnt signaling in either process has shown to result in unusual body axis phenotypes. Botryllus schlosseri is a colonial ascidian that can regenerate its entire body through asexual budding. This processes leads to an adult body via a stereotypical developmental pathway (called blastogenesis), without proceeding through any embryonic developmental stages.

Results

In this study, we describe the role of the canonical Wnt pathway during the early stages of asexual development. We characterized expression of three Wnt ligands (Wnt2B, Wnt5A, and Wnt9A) by in situ hybridization and qRT-PCR. Chemical manipulation of the pathway resulted in atypical budding due to the duplication of the A/P axes, supernumerary budding, and loss of the overall cell apical-basal polarity.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that Wnt signaling is used for equivalent developmental processes both during embryogenesis and asexual development in an adult organism, suggesting that patterning mechanisms driving morphogenesis are conserved, independent of embryonic, or regenerative development.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13227-015-0009-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Wnt5a and Wnt11 regulate mammalian anterior-posterior axis elongation

Mesoderm formation and subsequent anterior-posterior (A-P) axis elongation are fundamental aspects of gastrulation, which is initiated by formation of the primitive streak (PS). Convergent extension (CE) movements and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are important for A-P axis elongation in vertebrate embryos. The evolutionarily conserved planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway regulates CE, and Wnts regulate many aspects of gastrulation including CE and EMT. However, the Wnt ligands that regulate A-P axis elongation in mammalian development remain unknown. Wnt11 and Wnt5a regulate axis elongation in lower vertebrates, but only Wnt5a, not Wnt11, regulates mammalian PCP signaling and A-P axis elongation in development. Here, by generating Wnt5a; Wnt11 compound mutants, we show that Wnt11 and Wnt5a play redundant roles during mouse A-P axis elongation. Both genes regulate trunk notochord extension through PCP-controlled CE of notochord cells, establishing a role for Wnt11 in mammalian PCP. We show that Wnt5a and Wnt11 are required for proper patterning of the neural tube and somites by regulating notochord formation, and provide evidence that both genes are required for the generation and migration of axial and paraxial mesodermal precursor cells by regulating EMT. Axial and paraxial mesodermal precursors ectopically accumulate in the PS at late gastrula stages in Wnt5a(-/-); Wnt11(-/-) embryos and these cells ectopically express epithelial cell adhesion molecules. Our data suggest that Wnt5a and Wnt11 regulate EMT by inducing p38 (Mapk14) phosphorylation. Our findings provide new insights into the role of Wnt5a and Wnt11 in mouse early development and also in cancer metastasis, during which EMT plays a crucial role.

Nuclear p120-catenin regulates the anoikis resistance of mouse lobular breast cancer cells through Kaiso-dependent Wnt11 expression

E-cadherin inactivation underpins the progression of invasive lobular breast carcinoma (ILC). In ILC, p120-catenin (p120) translocates to the cytosol where it controls anchorage independence through the Rho-Rock signaling pathway, a key mechanism driving tumor growth and metastasis. We now demonstrate that anchorage-independent ILC cells show an increase in nuclear p120, which results in relief of transcriptional repression by Kaiso. To identify the Kaiso target genes that control anchorage independence we performed genome-wide mRNA profiling on anoikis-resistant mouse ILC cells, and identified 29 candidate target genes, including the established Kaiso target Wnt11. Our data indicate that anchorage-independent upregulation of Wnt11 in ILC cells is controlled by nuclear p120 through inhibition of Kaiso-mediated transcriptional repression. Finally, we show that Wnt11 promotes activation of RhoA, which causes ILC anoikis resistance. Our findings thereby establish a mechanistic link between E-cadherin loss and subsequent control of Rho-driven anoikis resistance through p120- and Kaiso-dependent expression of Wnt11.

Ror2 receptor mediates Wnt11 ligand signaling and affects convergence and extension movements in zebrafish

The receptor-tyrosine kinase Ror2 acts as an alternative receptor or co-receptor for Wnt5a and mediates Wnt5a-induced convergent extension movements during embryogenesis in mice and Xenopus as well as the polarity and migration of several cell types during development. However, little is known about whether Ror2 function is conserved in other vertebrates or is involved in other non-canonical Wnt ligands in vivo. In this study we demonstrated that overexpression of dominant-negative ror2 (ror2-TM) mRNA in zebrafish embryos resulted in convergence and extension defects and incompletely separated eyes, which is consistent with observations from slb/wnt11 mutants or wnt11 knockdown morphants. Moreover, the co-injection of ror2-TM mRNA and a wnt11 morpholino or the coexpression of ror2 and wnt11 in zebrafish embryos synergetically induced more severe convergence and extension defects. Transplantation studies further demonstrated that the Ror2 receptor responded to the Wnt11 ligand and regulated cell migration and cell morphology during gastrulation. DnRor2 inhibited the action of Wnt11, which was revealed by a decreased percentage of Wnt11-induced convergence and extension defects. Ror2 physically interacts with Wnt11. Theintracellular Tyr-647andSer-863 sites ofRor2are essential for mediating the action of Wnt11. Dishevelled and RhoA act downstream of Wnt11-Ror2 to regulate convergence and extension movements. Overall, our data suggest an important role of Ror2 in mediating Wnt11 signaling and in regulating convergence and extension movements in zebrafish.

Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development

BACKGROUND

Otoconia are bio-crystals that couple mechanic forces to the sensory hair cells in the utricle and saccule, a process essential for us to sense linear acceleration and gravity for the purpose of maintaining bodily balance. In fish, structurally similar bio-crystals called otoliths mediate both balance and hearing. Otoconia abnormalities are common and can cause vertigo and imbalance in humans. However, the molecular etiology of these illnesses is unknown, as investigators have only begun to identify genes important for otoconia formation in recent years.

RESULTS

To date, in-depth studies of selected mouse otoconial proteins have been performed, and about 75 zebrafish genes have been identified to be important for otolith development.

CONCLUSIONS

This review will summarize recent findings as well as compare otoconia and otolith development. It will provide an updated brief review of otoconial proteins along with an overview of the cells and cellular processes involved. While continued efforts are needed to thoroughly understand the molecular mechanisms underlying otoconia and otolith development, it is clear that the process involves a series of temporally and spatially specific events that are tightly coordinated by numerous proteins. Such knowledge will serve as the foundation to uncover the molecular causes of human otoconia-related disorders.

Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development

BACKGROUND

Otoconia are bio-crystals that couple mechanic forces to the sensory hair cells in the utricle and saccule, a process essential for us to sense linear acceleration and gravity for the purpose of maintaining bodily balance. In fish, structurally similar bio-crystals called otoliths mediate both balance and hearing. Otoconia abnormalities are common and can cause vertigo and imbalance in humans. However, the molecular etiology of these illnesses is unknown, as investigators have only begun to identify genes important for otoconia formation in recent years.

RESULTS

To date, in-depth studies of selected mouse otoconial proteins have been performed, and about 75 zebrafish genes have been identified to be important for otolith development.

CONCLUSIONS

This review will summarize recent findings as well as compare otoconia and otolith development. It will provide an updated brief review of otoconial proteins along with an overview of the cells and cellular processes involved. While continued efforts are needed to thoroughly understand the molecular mechanisms underlying otoconia and otolith development, it is clear that the process involves a series of temporally and spatially specific events that are tightly coordinated by numerous proteins. Such knowledge will serve as the foundation to uncover the molecular causes of human otoconia-related disorders.

Dynamic regulation of the microtubule and actin cytoskeleton in zebrafish epiboly

Gastrulation is a key developmental stage with striking changes in morphology. Coordinated cell movements occur to bring cells to their correct positions in a timely manner. Cell movements and morphological changes are accomplished by precisely controlling dynamic changes in cytoskeletal proteins, microtubules, and actin filaments. Among those cellular movements, epiboly produces the first distinct morphological changes in teleosts. In this review, I describe epiboly and its mechanics, and the dynamic changes in microtubule networks and actin structures, mainly in zebrafish embryos. The factors regulating those cytoskeletal changes will also be discussed.

Type-IV antifreeze proteins are essential for epiboly and convergence in gastrulation of zebrafish embryos

Many organisms in extremely cold environments such as the Antarctic Pole have evolved antifreeze molecules to prevent ice formation. There are four types of antifreeze proteins (AFPs). Type-IV antifreeze proteins (AFP4s) are present also in certain temperate and even tropical fish, which has raised a question as to whether these AFP4s have important functions in addition to antifreeze activity. Here we report the identification and functional analyses of AFP4s in cyprinid fish. Two genes, namely afp4a and afp4b coding for AFP4s, were identified in gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). In both species, afp4a and afp4b display a head-to-tail tandem arrangement and share a common 4-exonic gene structure. In zebrafish, both afp4a and afp4b were found to express specifically in the yolk syncytial layer (YSL). Interestingly, afp4a expression continues in YSL and digestive system from early embryos to adults, whereas afp4b expression is restricted to embryogenesis. Importantly, we have shown by using afp4a-specific and afp4b-specifc morpholino knockdown and cell lineage tracing approaches that AFP4a participates in epiboly progression by stabilizing yolk cytoplasmic layer microtubules, and AFP4b is primarily related to convergence movement. Therefore, both AFP4 proteins are essential for gastrulation of zebrafish embryos. Our current results provide first evidence that AFP such as AFP4 has important roles in regulating developmental processes besides its well-known function as antifreeze factors.

Bcl-wav and the mitochondrial calcium uniporter drive gastrula morphogenesis in zebrafish

Bcl-2 proteins are acknowledged as key regulators of programmed cell death. However, increasing data suggest additional roles, including regulation of the cell cycle, metabolism and cytoskeletal dynamics. Here we report the discovery and characterization of a new Bcl-2-related multidomain apoptosis accelerator, Bcl-wav, found in fish and frogs. Genetic and molecular studies in zebrafish indicate that Bcl-wav and the recently identified mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) contribute to the formation of the notochord axis by controlling blastomere convergence and extension movements during gastrulation. Furthermore, we found that Bcl-wav controls intracellular Ca(2+) trafficking by acting on the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel, and possibly on MCU, with direct consequences on actin microfilament dynamics and blastomere migration guidance. Thus, from an evolutionary point of view, the original function of Bcl-2 proteins might have been to contribute in controlling the global positioning system of blastomeres during gastrulation, a critical step in metazoan development.

Formin' cellular structures: Physiological roles of Diaphanous (Dia) in actin dynamics

Members of the Diaphanous (Dia) protein family are key regulators of fundamental actin driven cellular processes, which are conserved from yeast to humans. Researchers have uncovered diverse physiological roles in cell morphology, cell motility, cell polarity, and cell division, which are involved in shaping cells into tissues and organs. The identification of numerous binding partners led to substantial progress in our understanding of the differential functions of Dia proteins. Genetic approaches and new microscopy techniques allow important new insights into their localization, activity, and molecular principles of regulation.

Dexamethasone induces cross-linked actin networks in trabecular meshwork cells through noncanonical wnt signaling

PURPOSE

Dexamethasone (DEX) regulates aqueous humor outflow by inducing a reorganization of the cytoskeleton to form cross-linked actin networks (CLANs) in trabecular meshwork (TM) cells. Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) has been demonstrated to have an important role in this process, but the upstream components leading to its activation remain elusive. The purpose of the study is to demonstrate that noncanonical Wnt signaling mediates the DEX-induced CLAN formation in TM cells.

METHODS

The TM cells were treated with 100 nM DEX in low serum medium for over 7 days. The medium was changed every 3 days. The cells were harvested and subjected to molecular analysis for the expression of Wnt ligands. Stress fiber structures were revealed by Phalloidin staining. Lentivirus-based shRNA against noncanonical Wnt receptor (Ror2) was used to determine the role of noncanonical Wnt signaling in DEX-induced CLAN formation.

RESULTS

The DEX induced stress fiber rearrangement in TM cells. A noncanonical Wnt ligand (Wnt5a) was upregulated by DEX as demonstrated by Wnt ligand degenerate PCR, real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR), and Western blotting. Knocking-down Ror2, the receptor of noncanonical Wnt signaling, abolished the effects of DEX on the TM cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that DEX induces the upregulation of noncanonical Wnt ligand Wnt5a. Recombinant WNT5a protein induces CLAN formation through the noncanonical Wnt receptor ROR2/RhoA/ROCK signaling axis. Given the similarities between DEX-induced ocular hypertension and primary open-angle glaucoma, our results provide a mechanism of action for applying ROCK inhibitor to treat primary open-angle glaucoma.

Protein phosphatase 1 β paralogs encode the zebrafish myosin phosphatase catalytic subunit

Background

The myosin phosphatase is a highly conserved regulator of actomyosin contractility. Zebrafish has emerged as an ideal model system to study the invivo role of myosin phosphatase in controlling cell contractility, cell movement and epithelial biology. Most work in zebrafish has focused on the regulatory subunit of the myosin phosphatase called Mypt1. In this work, we examined the critical role of Protein Phosphatase 1, PP1, the catalytic subunit of the myosin phosphatase.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We observed that in zebrafish two paralogous genes encoding PP1β, called ppp1cba and ppp1cbb, are both broadly expressed during early development. Furthermore, we found that both gene products interact with Mypt1 and assemble an active myosin phosphatase complex. In addition, expression of this complex results in dephosphorylation of the myosin regulatory light chain and large scale rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton. Morpholino knock-down of ppp1cba and ppp1cbb results in severe defects in morphogenetic cell movements during gastrulation through loss of myosin phosphatase function.

Conclusions/Significance

Our work demonstrates that zebrafish have two genes encoding PP1β, both of which can interact with Mypt1 and assemble an active myosin phosphatase. In addition, both genes are required for convergence and extension during gastrulation and correct dosage of the protein products is required.

Crosstalk of Ras and Rho: activation of RhoA abates Kras-induced liver tumorigenesis in transgenic zebrafish models

RAS and Rho small GTPases are key molecular switches that control cell dynamics, cell growth and tissue development through their distinct signaling pathways. Although much has been learnt about their individual functions in both cell and animal models, the physiological and pathophysiological consequences of their signaling crosstalk in multi-cellular context in vivo remain largely unknown, especially in liver development and liver tumorigenesis. Furthermore, the roles of RhoA in RAS-mediated transformation and their crosstalk in vitro remain highly controversial. When challenged with carcinogens, zebrafish developed liver cancer that resembles the human liver cancer both molecularly and histopathologically. Capitalizing on the growing importance and relevance of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as an alternate cancer model, we have generated liver-specific, Tet-on-inducible transgenic lines expressing oncogenic Kras(G12V), RhoA, constitutively active RhoA(G14V) or dominant-negative RhoA(T19N). Double-transgenic lines expressing Kras(G12V) with one of the three RhoA genes were also generated. Based on quantitative bioimaging and molecular markers for genetic and signaling aberrations, we showed that the induced expression of oncogenic Kras during early development led to liver enlargement and hepatocyte proliferation, associated with elevated Erk phosphorylation, activation of Akt2 and modulation of its two downstream targets, p21Cip and S6 kinase. Such an increase in liver size and Akt2 expression was augmented by dominant-negative RhoA(T19N), but was abrogated by the constitutive-active RhoA(G14V). Consequently, induced expression of the oncogenic Kras in adult transgenic fish led to the development of hepatocellular carcinomas. Survival studies further revealed that the co-expression of dominant-negative RhoA(T19N) with oncogenic Kras increased the mortality rate compared with the other single or double-transgenic lines. This study provides evidence of the previously unappreciated signaling crosstalk between Kras and RhoA in regulating liver overgrowth and liver tumorigenesis. Our results also implicate that activating Rho could be beneficial to suppress the Kras-induced liver malignancies.

Tubulin polymerization promoting protein 1 (TPPP1) increases β-catenin expression through inhibition of HDAC6 activity in U2OS osteosarcoma cells

The Rho-associated coiled-coil kinase (ROCK) family of proteins, including ROCK1 and ROCK2, are key regulators of actin and intermediate filament morphology. The newly discovered ROCK substrate Tubulin polymerization promoting protein 1 (TPPP1) promotes microtubule polymerization and inhibits the activity of Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6). The effect of TPPP1 on HDAC6 activity is inhibited by ROCK signaling. Moreover, it was recently demonstrated that ROCK activity increases the cellular expression of the oncogene β-catenin, which is a HDAC6 substrate. In this study, we investigated the interplay between ROCK-TPPP1-HDAC6 signaling and β-catenin expression. We demonstrate that β-catenin expression is increased with ROCK signaling activation and is reduced with increased TPPP1 expression in U2OS cells. Further investigation revealed that ROCK-mediated TPPP1 phosphorylation, which prevents its binding to HDAC6, negates TPPP1-mediated reduction in β-catenin expression. We also show that increased HDAC6 activity resulting from ROCK signaling activation reduced β-catenin acetylation at Lys-49, which was also accompanied by its decreased phosphorylation by Caesin kinase 1 (CK1) and Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), thus preventing its proteasomal degradation. Overall, our results suggest that ROCK regulates β-catenin stability in cells via preventing TPPP1-mediated inhibition of HDAC6 activity, to reduce its acetylation and degradation via phosphorylation by CK1 and GSK3β.

Targeted overexpression of TGF-α in the corneal epithelium of adult transgenic mice induces changes in anterior segment morphology and activates noncanonical Wnt signaling

PURPOSE

Transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-α) transduces its signal through the epidermal growth factor receptor and is essential for corneal epithelial homeostasis. Previous studies have demonstrated that overexpression of TGF-α in the developing eye leads to anterior segment dysgenesis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here we examined the effects of TGF-α overexpression on adult ocular surface homeostasis.

METHODS

Binary Tet-On transgenic Krt12(rtTA)/tet-O-TGF-α mice were subjected to doxycycline (Dox) induction to overexpress TGF-α in the corneal epithelium. Intraocular pressure (IOP) was measured by noninvasive tonometry. The enucleated eyes of the experimental mice were subjected to histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and biochemistry examination.

RESULTS

Histologic and immunofluorescent examination showed that double-transgenic mice overexpressing TGF-α manifested peripheral anterior synechiae. Elevation of IOP, activation of glial cells, and loss of retinal ganglion cells were also observed. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that the expressions of genes (RXRα, PITX2, and FOXC1) related to anterior segment dysgenesis were downregulated. Canonical Wnt signaling was suppressed, whereas noncanonical Wnt ligands (Wnt4 and Wnt5a) were upregulated. Increased myosin light chain phosphorylation suggested that noncanonical Wnt signaling is activated in affected eyes.

CONCLUSIONS

Overexpression of TGF-α in the corneal epithelium induces changes in anterior segment morphology. Corneal endothelial abnormalities are associated with the activation of the noncanonical Wnt and RhoA/ROCK signaling axis, indicating a potential application of RhoA/ROCK inhibitors as a therapeutic strategy for certain types of secondary angle-closure glaucoma.

Anthrax toxin receptor 2a controls mitotic spindle positioning

Oriented mitosis is essential during tissue morphogenesis. The Wnt/planar cell polarity (Wnt/PCP) pathway orients mitosis in a number of developmental systems, including dorsal epiblast cell divisions along the animal-vegetal (A-V) axis during zebrafish gastrulation. How Wnt signalling orients the mitotic plane is, however, unknown. Here we show that, in dorsal epiblast cells, anthrax toxin receptor 2a (Antxr2a) accumulates in a polarized cortical cap, which is aligned with the embryonic A-V axis and forecasts the division plane. Filamentous actin (F-actin) also forms an A-V polarized cap, which depends on Wnt/PCP and its effectors RhoA and Rock2. Antxr2a is recruited to the cap by interacting with actin. Antxr2a also interacts with RhoA and together they activate the diaphanous-related formin zDia2. Mechanistically, Antxr2a functions as a Wnt-dependent polarized determinant, which, through the action of RhoA and zDia2, exerts torque on the spindle to align it with the A-V axis.

Wnt-RhoA signaling is involved in dental enamel development

Transgenic mice that express dominant-negative RhoA (RhoA(DN) ) in ameloblasts have hypoplastic enamel with defects in molar cusps. β-catenin and Wnt5a were up-regulated in enamel organs of RhoA(DN) transgenic mice, which indicated that both canonical and non-canonical Wnt pathways are implicated in the process of enamel defect formation. It was hypothesized that expression of RhoA(DN) in ameloblasts interfered with normal enamel development through the pathways that were induced by fluoride. The Wnt and RhoA pathways were further investigated in an ameloblast-lineage cell line (ALC) by treatment with sodium fluoride (NaF). The activities of RhoA and Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) II decreased significantly by 8-12 hours, similar to decreased activity in RhoA(DN) transgenic mice. Both canonical and non-canonical Wnt pathways were activated by treatment with NaF, which was verified by western blotting and the β-catenin-TCF/LEF (T cell factor lymphanoid/enhancer factor) reporter gene (TOPflash) assay. β-catenin localization to both cytoplasm and nucleus was up-regulated in NaF-treated ALC, while Gsk-3β, the negative regulator of the Wnt pathway, showed a decreased pattern of expression. The current results indicate that both Wnt and RhoA pathways are implicated in fluoride-induced signaling transductions in the ALC as well as in the development of enamel defects in RhoA(DN) transgenic mice.

Role of lbx2 in the noncanonical Wnt signaling pathway for convergence and extension movements and hypaxial myogenesis in zebrafish

It has been suggested that mouse lbx1 is essential for directing hypaxial myogenic precursor cell migration. In zebrafish, the expression of lbx1a, lbx1b, and lbx2 has been observed in pectoral fin buds. It has also been shown that knocking down endogenous lbx2 in zebrafish embryos diminishes myoD expression in the pectoral fin bud. However, downstream lbxs signals remain largely unexplored. Here, we describe a previously unknown function of zebrafish lbx2 (lbx2) during convergent extension (CE) movements. The abrogation of the lbx2 function by two non-overlapping morpholino oligonucleotides (MOs) resulted in the defective convergence and extension movements in morphants during gastrulation. Our transplantation studies further demonstrated that the overexpression of lbx2 autonomously promotes CE movements. Expression of wnt5b is significantly reduced in lbx2 morphants. We have demonstrated that application of the wnt5b MO, a dominant-negative form of disheveled (Dvl) and a chemical inhibitor of Rho-associated kinase Y27632 in zebrafish embryos have effects reminiscent that are of the CE and hypaxial myogenesis defects observed in lbx2 morphants. Moreover, the CE and hypaxial mesoderm defects seen in lbx2 morphants can be rescued by co-injection with wnt5b or RhoA mRNA. However, this reduced level of active RhoA and hypaxial myogenesis defects in the embryos injected with the dominant-negative form of Dvl mRNA cannot be effectively restored by co-injection with lbx2 mRNA. Our results suggest that the key noncanonical Wnt signaling components Wnt5, Dvl, and RhoA are downstream effectors involved in the regulative roles of lbx2 in CE movement and hypaxial myogenesis during zebrafish embryogenesis.

Loss of Porcupine impairs convergent extension during gastrulation in zebrafish

Porcupine (Porcn), an O-acyltransferase located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is required for lipidation of Wnt proteins to enable their trafficking from the ER in mammalian cell culture. However, it is unclear whether Porcn is required for trafficking of all members of the Wnt family. In this study, we investigated the function of Porcn in zebrafish embryos. We identified two zebrafish homologs of porcupine, porcn and porcupine-like (porcn-l). Zebrafish porcn, but not porcn-l, restores secretion of Wnt proteins in porcn-deficient mouse L cells. Morpholino-mediated knockdown of porcn in zebrafish embryos impairs convergence and extension (CE) during gastrulation without changing embryonic patterning. Moreover, porcn interacts genetically with wnt5b and wnt11 in regulating CE. By contrast, porcn-deficient embryos do not exhibit phenotypes caused by failure in canonical Wnt signaling, which is activated by several Wnt ligands, including Wnt3a. Furthermore, expression of genes regulated by the canonical Wnt signaling pathway is not perturbed in knockdown embryos relative to that in controls. Although the trafficking and lipidation of ectopically expressed zebrafish Wnt5b and mouse Wnt5a are impaired in porcn-deficient embryos, those of ectopically expressed Wnt3a are less or not affected. In addition, the secretion of Wnt5a is inhibited by less Porcn inhibitor than that of Wnt3a in HEK293T cells. Thus, a decrease of Porcn activity does not equivalently affect trafficking and lipidation of different Wnt proteins in zebrafish embryos and in cultured mammalian cells.

Analysis of cell shape and polarity during zebrafish gastrulation

Gastrulation is a complex set of cellular rearrangements that establish the overall shape of the body plan during development. In addition to being an essential and fascinating aspect of development, the cells of the gastrulating zebrafish embryo also provide an ideal in vivo system to study the interplay of cell polarity and movement in a native 3D environment. During gastrulation, zebrafish mesodermal cells undergo a series of conversions from initial non-polarized amoeboid cell movements to more mesenchymal and finally highly polarized and intercalative cell behaviors. Many of the cellular behavior changes of these cells are under the control of the RhoA pathway, which in turn is regulated by many signals, including non-canonical Wnts. The goal of this chapter is to provide researchers with the necessary protocols to examine changes in cell polarity and movement in the developing zebrafish embryo.

Wnt11 in 2011 - the regulation and function of a non-canonical Wnt

Genetic studies of Wnt11 have revealed many insights into the roles and regulation of Wnt11, particularly during development. New tools to study Wnt11 have recently become available, making it timely to review the literature regarding this unique Wnt family member. In this study, we focus on mammalian Wnt11, describing its main sites of expression during development, and how the Wnt11 gene is regulated. We highlight an emerging theme in which canonical Wnt signals regulate Wnt11 expression through transcription factors in addition to, or other than, Tcf/LEF family members. We also discuss the frizzled family and other receptors that bind to Wnt11, the intracellular kinases and small GTPases that act downstream of Wnt11, and the effects of Wnt11 on Wnt/β-catenin signalling. Finally, we elaborate on the relevance of Wnt11 to human cancer, where it appears to be important both for proliferation and/or survival during normal differentiation and for migration/invasion.

Using zebrafish for studying Rho GTPases signaling in vivo

Rho small GTPases play pivotal roles in a variety of dynamic cellular processes including cytoskeleton rearrangement, cell migration, cell proliferation, cell survival, and gene regulation. However, their functions in vivo are much less understood. Recently, the zebrafish, Danio rerio has emerged as a powerful model organism for developmental and genetic studies. Zebrafish embryos have many unique characteristics, such as optical transparency, external fertilization and development, and amenability for various molecular manipulations including morpholino oligo-mediated gene knockdown, mRNA or DNA overexpression-induced gain of function or rescue, in situ hybridization (ISH) with riboprobes for gene expression, western blot for protein analysis, small-molecule inhibition on signaling pathways, and bioimaging for tracking of molecular events. Taking many of such advantages, we have demonstrated the role of rhoA small GTPase in the control of gastrulation cell movements and cell survival during early zebrafish embryogenesis, linking RhoA functions to at least the noncanonical Wnt, Mek/Erk, and Bcl2 signaling nodes in vivo. Here, we describe the use of such techniques, including gene knockdown by morpholino oligo, functional rescue by mRNA overexpression, microinjection, ISH, western blot analysis and pharmacological inhibition of signaling pathways by small molecule inhibitors, with special considerations on their merits, potential drawbacks, and adaptation which could pave the way to our better understanding of the roles of various classes of small GTPases in regulating cell dynamics and development in vivo.

Lzts2 regulates embryonic cell movements and dorsoventral patterning through interaction with and export of nuclear β-catenin in zebrafish

Leucine zipper tumor suppressor 2 (Lzts2) functions in the development and progression of various tumors, but its activities in vertebrate embryogenesis remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that lzts2 transcripts are of maternal origin in zebrafish embryos. Activation of BMP signaling up-regulates zygotic expression of lzts2, whereas canonical Wnt signaling acts upstream of BMP signaling to inhibit lzts2 expression. Abrogation of lzts2 expression by its specific morpholino-enhanced gastrula convergence and extension (CE) movements, dorsalized early embryos, and inhibited specification of midline progenitors for pancreas, liver, and heart. In contrast, ectopic expression of lzts2 led to the delay of CE movements and midline convergence of organ progenitors and resulted in a certain ratio of ventralized embryos. Mechanistically, Lzts2 regulates the migration of embryonic cells and dorsoventral patterning through its limitation of Wnt/β-catenin activity, because it physically interacts with β-catenin-1 and -2 and transports them out of the nucleus. In addition, both β-catenin-1 and -2 exhibit redundant functions in activation of Stat3 signaling and in induction of Wnt5/11 expression through inhibition of BMP signaling and stimulation of Cyclops and Squint expression. Thus, Lzts2 regulates gastrula CE movements, dorsoventral patterning, and midline convergence and specification of organ precursors through interaction with and the export of nuclear β-catenins in zebrafish.

Spatiotemporal expression of Wnt5a during the development of the hindgut and anorectum in human embryos

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to determine the spatiotemporal expression of Wnt5a during hindgut and anorectum development in human embryos and to explore the possible role of Wnt5a during the morphogenesis of the human hindgut and anorectum.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The embryos (n = 107) were sectioned serially and sagittally, using Wnt5a immunohistochemical staining on the caudal midline from the 4th-9th weeks of gestation.

RESULTS

From the 4th-7th week of gestation, the Wnt5a-positive cells were mainly located on the epithelium of the apical urorectal septum, hindgut, and cloacal membrane. After the anorectum and the urogenital sinus (UGS) opened to the amniotic cavity during the 7th week, the Wnt5a-positive cells disappeared and remained negative up to the 9th week on the epithelium of the anal canal.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression of Wnt5a was constantly active during human hindgut and anorectum development and disappeared after the anus formed, suggesting that Wnt5a plays an important role in human hindgut and anorectal morphogenesis.

WNT5A induces osteogenic differentiation of human adipose stem cells via rho-associated kinase ROCK

BACKGROUND AIMS

Human (h) adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ASC) constitute an interesting cellular source for bone tissue engineering applications. Wnts, for example Wnt5a, are probably important regulators of osteogenic differentiation of stem cells, but the role of Wnt5a in hASC lineage commitment and the mechanisms activated upon Wnt5a binding are unknown. We examined whether Wnt5a induces osteogenic and/or adipogenic differentiation of hASC.

METHODS

hASC were incubated for 7 days with or without Wnt5a, rho-associated kinase (ROCK)-activity inhibitor Y27632 or Wnt3a. Cells were lysed for total RNA isolation, DNA content and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. Mineralized nodule formation and gene expression of osteogenic markers osteocalcin and runt-related protein-2 (RUNX2), and adipogenic markers peroxisome proliferator activator receptor-γ (PPARγ) and transcription factor apetala-2 (aP2), were analyzed. hASC were incubated with Wnt5a or Wnt3a to determine activation of canonical and/or non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways, and protein kinase C activity (PKC), total ß-catenin content and gene expression of connexin 43 and cyclin D1 were quantified.

RESULTS

Wnt5a increased ALP activity and RUNX2 and osteocalcin gene expression, and down-regulated adipogenic markers through ROCK activity. Wnt5a also induced mineralized nodule formation. Wnt3a only enhanced RUNX2 and osteocalcin gene expression, and did not induce osteogenic differentiation. Wnt5a activated the non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway by increasing PKC activity, while Wnt3a mildly activated the Wnt canonical pathway by increasing total ß-catenin content and connexin 43 and cyclin D1 gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data illustrate the importance of Wnt5a as a stimulator of hASC osteogenic differentiation, and show that changes in actin cytoskeleton controlled by ROCK are determinants for Wnt5a-induced osteogenic differentiation of hASC.

Ptenb mediates gastrulation cell movements via Cdc42/AKT1 in zebrafish

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3 kinase) mediates gastrulation cell migration in zebrafish via its regulation of PIP₂/PIP₃ balance. Although PI3 kinase counter enzyme PTEN has also been reported to be essential for gastrulation, its role in zebrafish gastrulation has been controversial due to the lack of gastrulation defects in pten-null mutants. To clarify this issue, we knocked down a pten isoform, ptenb by using anti-sense morpholino oligos (MOs) in zebrafish embryos and found that ptenb MOs inhibit convergent extension by affecting cell motility and protrusion during gastrulation. The ptenb MO-induced convergence defect could be rescued by a PI3-kinase inhibitor, LY294002 and by overexpressing dominant negative Cdc42. Overexpression of human constitutively active akt1 showed similar convergent extension defects in zebrafish embryos. We also observed a clear enhancement of actin polymerization in ptenb morphants under cofocal microscopy and in actin polymerization assay. These results suggest that Ptenb by antagonizing PI3 kinase and its downstream Akt1 and Cdc42 to regulate actin polymerization that is critical for proper cell motility and migration control during gastrulation in zebrafish.