Mir-17∼92 Governs Motor Neuron Subtype Survival by Mediating Nuclear PTEN

Elucidation of how the Mir-23-27-24 cluster regulates development and aging

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are pivotal regulators of gene expression and are involved in biological processes spanning from early developmental stages to the intricate process of aging. Extensive research has underscored the fundamental role of miRNAs in orchestrating eukaryotic development, with disruptions in miRNA biogenesis resulting in early lethality. Moreover, perturbations in miRNA function have been implicated in the aging process, particularly in model organisms such as nematodes and flies. miRNAs tend to be clustered in vertebrate genomes, finely modulating an array of biological pathways through clustering within a single transcript. Although extensive research of their developmental roles has been conducted, the potential implications of miRNA clusters in regulating aging remain largely unclear. In this review, we use the Mir-23-27-24 cluster as a paradigm, shedding light on the nuanced physiological functions of miRNA clusters during embryonic development and exploring their potential involvement in the aging process. Moreover, we advocate further research into the intricate interplay among miRNA clusters, particularly the Mir-23-27-24 cluster, in shaping the regulatory landscape of aging.

miR-17∼92 exerts stage-specific effects in adult V-SVZ neural stem cell lineages

Neural stem cells (NSCs) in the adult ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) generate neurons and glia throughout life. MicroRNAs are important post-transcriptional regulators frequently acting in a context-dependent manner. Here, microRNA profiling defines cohorts of miRNAs in quiescent and activated NSCs, with miR-17∼92 highly upregulated in activated NSCs and transit amplifying cells (TACs) versus quiescent NSCs. Conditional miR-17∼92 deletion in the adult V-SVZ results in stage-specific effects. In NSCs, it reduces proliferation in vitro and in vivo, whereas in TACs, it selectively shifts neurogenic OLIG2^- DLX2⁺ toward oligodendrogenic OLIG2⁺ DLX2^- TACs, due to de-repression of an oligodendrogenic program, leading to increased oligodendrogenesis in vivo. This differential regulation of TAC subpopulations highlights the importance of TAC heterogeneity. Finally, in the NSC lineage for intraventricular oligodendrocyte progenitors, miR-17∼92 deletion decreases proliferation and maturation. Together, these findings reveal multiple stage-specific functions of the miR-17∼92 cluster within different adult V-SVZ lineages.

Modeling Movement Disorders via Generation of hiPSC-Derived Motor Neurons

Generation of motor neurons (MNs) from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) overcomes the limited access to human brain tissues and provides an unprecedent approach for modeling MN-related diseases. In this review, we discuss the recent progression in understanding the regulatory mechanisms of MN differentiation and their applications in the generation of MNs from hiPSCs, with a particular focus on two approaches: induction by small molecules and induction by lentiviral delivery of transcription factors. At each induction stage, different culture media and supplements, typical growth conditions and cellular morphology, and specific markers for validation of cell identity and quality control are specifically discussed. Both approaches can generate functional MNs. Currently, the major challenges in modeling neurological diseases using iPSC-derived neurons are: obtaining neurons with high purity and yield; long-term neuron culture to reach full maturation; and how to culture neurons more physiologically to maximize relevance to in vivo conditions.

Diseased, differentiated and difficult: Strategies for improved engineering of in vitro neurological systems

The rapidly growing field of cellular engineering is enabling scientists to more effectively create in vitro models of disease and develop specific cell types that can be used to repair damaged tissue. In particular, the engineering of neurons and other components of the nervous system is at the forefront of this field. The methods used to engineer neural cells can be largely divided into systems that undergo directed differentiation through exogenous stimulation (i.e., via small molecules, arguably following developmental pathways) and those that undergo induced differentiation via protein overexpression (i.e., genetically induced and activated; arguably bypassing developmental pathways). Here, we highlight the differences between directed differentiation and induced differentiation strategies, how they can complement one another to generate specific cell phenotypes, and impacts of each strategy on downstream applications. Continued research in this nascent field will lead to the development of improved models of neurological circuits and novel treatments for those living with neurological injury and disease.

The Biogenesis of miRNAs and Their Role in the Development of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects upper and lower motor neurons. As there is no effective treatment for ALS, it is particularly important to screen key gene therapy targets. The identifications of microRNAs (miRNAs) have completely changed the traditional view of gene regulation. miRNAs are small noncoding single-stranded RNA molecules involved in the regulation of post-transcriptional gene expression. Recent advances also indicate that miRNAs are biomarkers in many diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarize recent advances regarding the mechanisms underlying the role of miRNAs in ALS pathogenesis and its application to gene therapy for ALS. The potential of miRNAs to target diverse pathways opens a new avenue for ALS therapy.

Taking Cellular Heterogeneity Into Consideration When Modeling Astrocyte Involvement in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Astrocytes are a large group of glial cells that perform a variety of physiological functions in the nervous system. They provide trophic, as well as structural, support to neuronal cells. Astrocytes are also involved in neuroinflammatory processes contributing to neuronal dysfunction and death. Growing evidence suggests important roles for astrocytes in non-cell autonomous mechanisms of motor neuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Understanding these mechanisms necessitates the combined use of animal and human cell-based experimental model systems, at least in part because human astrocytes display a number of unique features that cannot be recapitulated in animal models. Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-based approaches provide the opportunity to generate disease-relevant human astrocytes to investigate the roles of these cells in ALS. These approaches are facing the growing recognition that there are heterogenous populations of astrocytes in the nervous system which are not functionally equivalent. This review will discuss the importance of taking astrocyte heterogeneity into consideration when designing hiPSC-based strategies aimed at generating the most informative preparations to study the contribution of astrocytes to ALS pathophysiology.

MicroRNA governs bistable cell differentiation and lineage segregation via a noncanonical feedback

Positive feedback driven by transcriptional regulation has long been considered a key mechanism underlying cell lineage segregation during embryogenesis. Using the developing spinal cord as a paradigm, we found that canonical, transcription-driven feedback cannot explain robust lineage segregation of motor neuron subtypes marked by two cardinal factors, Hoxa5 and Hoxc8. We propose a feedback mechanism involving elementary microRNA-mRNA reaction circuits that differ from known feedback loop-like structures. Strikingly, we show that a wide range of biologically plausible post-transcriptional regulatory parameters are sufficient to generate bistable switches, a hallmark of positive feedback. Through mathematical analysis, we explain intuitively the hidden source of this feedback. Using embryonic stem cell differentiation and mouse genetics, we corroborate that microRNA-mRNA circuits govern tissue boundaries and hysteresis upon motor neuron differentiation with respect to transient morphogen signals. Our findings reveal a previously underappreciated feedback mechanism that may have widespread functions in cell fate decisions and tissue patterning.

MicroRNAs mediate precise control of spinal interneuron populations to exert delicate sensory-to-motor outputs

Although the function of microRNAs (miRNAs) during embryonic development has been intensively studied in recent years, their postnatal physiological functions remain largely unexplored due to inherent difficulties with the presence of redundant paralogs of the same seed. Thus, it is particularly challenging to uncover miRNA functions at neural circuit level since animal behaviors would need to be assessed upon complete loss of miRNA family functions. Here, we focused on the neural functions of MiR34/449 that manifests a dynamic expression pattern in the spinal cord from embryonic to postnatal stages. Our behavioral assays reveal that the loss of MiR34/449 miRNAs perturb thermally induced pain response thresholds and compromised delicate motor output in mice. Mechanistically, MiR34/449 directly target Satb1 and Satb2 to fine-tune the precise number of a sub-population of motor synergy encoder (MSE) neurons. Thus, MiR34/449 fine-tunes optimal development of Satb1/2^on interneurons in the spinal cord, thereby refining explicit sensory-to-motor circuit outputs.

The spinal cord is an information superhighway that connects the body with the brain. There, circuits of neurons process information from the brain before sending commands to muscles to generate movement. Each spinal cord circuit contains many types of neurons, whose identity is defined by the set of genes that are active or ‘expressed’ in each cell.

When a gene is turned on, its DNA sequence is copied to produce a messenger RNA (mRNA), a type of molecule that the cell then uses as a template to produce a protein. MicroRNAs (or miRNAs), on the other hand, are tiny RNA molecules that help to regulate gene expression by binding to and ‘deactivating’ specific mRNAs, stopping them from being used to make proteins.

Mammalian cells contain thousands of types of microRNAs, many of which have unknown roles: this includes MiR34/449, a group of six microRNAs found mainly within the nervous system. By using genetic technology to delete this family from the mouse genome, Chang et al. now show that MiR34/449 has a key role in regulating spinal cord circuits.

The first clue came from discovering that mice without the MiR34/449 family had unusual posture and a tendency to walk on tiptoe. The animals were also more sensitive to heat, flicking their tails away from a heat source more readily than control mice.

At a finer level, the spinal cords of the mutants contained greater numbers of cells in which two genes, Satb1 and Satb2, were turned on. Compared to their counterparts in control mice, the Satb1/2-positive neurons also showed differences in the rest of the genes they expressed. In essence, these neurons had a different genetic profile in MiR34/449 mutant mice, therefore disrupting the neural circuit they belong to.

Based on these findings, Chang et al. propose that in wild-type mice, the MiR34/449 family fine-tunes the expression of Satb1/2 in the spinal cord during development. In doing so, it regulates the formation of the spinal cord circuits that help to control movement. More generally, these results provide clues about how miRNAs help to determine cell identities; further studies could then examine whether other miRNAs contribute to the development and maintenance of neuronal circuits.

Circulating microRNAs as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets in spinal muscular atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a leading genetic cause of infant death, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the selective loss of particular groups of motor neurons (MNs) in the anterior horn of the spinal cord with progressive muscle wasting. SMA is caused by a deficiency of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein due to a homozygous deletion or mutation of the SMN1 gene. However, the molecular mechanisms whereby the SMN complex regulates MN functions are not fully elucidated. Emerging studies on SMA pathogenesis have turned the attention of researchers to RNA metabolism, given that increasingly identified SMN-associated modifiers are involved in both coding and non-coding RNA (ncRNA) processing. Among various ncRNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs) are the most studied in terms of regulation of posttranscriptional gene expression. Recently, the discovery that miRNAs are critical to MN function and survival led to the study of dysregulated miRNAs in SMA pathogenesis. Circulating miRNAs have drawn attention as a readily available biomarker due to their property of being clinically detectable in numerous human biofluids through non-invasive approaches. As there are recent promising findings from novel miRNA-based medicines, this article presents an extensive review of the most up-to-date studies connecting specific miRNAs to SMA pathogenesis and the potential applications of miRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for SMA.

Functional roles and networks of non-coding RNAs in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases

Recent transcriptome analyses have revealed that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are broadly expressed in mammalian cells and abundant in the CNS, with tissue and cell type-specific expression patterns. Moreover, ncRNAs have been found to intricately and dynamically regulate various signaling pathways in neurodegeneration. As such, some antisense transcripts and microRNAs are known to directly affect neurodegeneration in disease contexts. The functions of ncRNAs in pathogenesis are unique for each disorder, as are the pertinent networks of ncRNA/miRNA/mRNA that mediate these functions. Thus, further understanding of ncRNA biogenesis and effects might aid the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers or development of effective therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we review the ncRNAs that have so far been identified in major neurodegenerative disease etiology and the mechanisms that link ncRNAs with disease-specific phenotypes, such as HTT aggregation in HD, α-synuclein in PD, and Aβ plaques and hyperphosphorylated Tau in AD. We also summarize the known lncRNA/miRNA/mRNA networks that participate in neurodegenerative diseases, and we discuss ncRNA-related treatments shown to delay disease onset and prolong lifespan in rodent models.

Functional Roles of Long Non-coding RNAs in Motor Neuron Development and Disease

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have gained increasing attention as they exhibit highly tissue- and cell-type specific expression patterns. LncRNAs are highly expressed in the central nervous system and their roles in the brain have been studied intensively in recent years, but their roles in the spinal motor neurons (MNs) are largely unexplored. Spinal MN development is controlled by precise expression of a gene regulatory network mediated spatiotemporally by transcription factors, representing an elegant paradigm for deciphering the roles of lncRNAs during development. Moreover, many MN-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), are associated with RNA metabolism, yet the link between MN-related diseases and lncRNAs remains obscure. In this review, we summarize lncRNAs known to be involved in MN development and disease, and discuss their potential future therapeutic applications.

Multifaceted roles of microRNAs: From motor neuron generation in embryos to degeneration in spinal muscular atrophy

Two crucial questions in neuroscience are how neurons establish individual identity in the developing nervous system and why only specific neuron subtypes are vulnerable to neurodegenerative diseases. In the central nervous system, spinal motor neurons serve as one of the best-characterized cell types for addressing these two questions. In this review, we dissect these questions by evaluating the emerging role of regulatory microRNAs in motor neuron generation in developing embryos and their potential contributions to neurodegenerative diseases such as spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Given recent promising results from novel microRNA-based medicines, we discuss the potential applications of microRNAs for clinical assessments of SMA disease progression and treatment.

Mir-17∼92 Confers Motor Neuron Subtype Differential Resistance to ALS-Associated Degeneration

Progressive degeneration of motor neurons (MNs) is the hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Limb-innervating lateral motor column MNs (LMC-MNs) seem to be particularly vulnerable and are among the first MNs affected in ALS. Here, we report association of this differential susceptibility with reduced expression of the mir-17∼92 cluster in LMC-MNs prior to disease onset. Reduced mir-17∼92 is accompanied by elevated nuclear PTEN in spinal MNs of presymptomatic SOD1^G93A mice. Selective dysregulation of the mir-17∼92/nuclear PTEN axis in degenerating SOD1^G93A LMC-MNs was confirmed in a double-transgenic embryonic stem cell system and recapitulated in human SOD1^+/L144F-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived MNs. We further show that overexpression of mir-17∼92 significantly rescues human SOD1^+/L144F MNs, and intrathecal delivery of adeno-associated virus (AAV)9-mir-17∼92 improves motor deficits and survival in SOD1^G93A mice. Thus, mir-17∼92 may have value as a prognostic marker of MN degeneration and is a candidate therapeutic target in SOD1-linked ALS. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

The MicroRNA Family Both in Normal Development and in Different Diseases: The miR-17-92 Cluster

An increasing number of research studies over recent years have focused on the function of microRNA (miRNA) molecules which have unique characteristics in terms of structure and function. They represent a class of endogenous noncoding single-strand small molecules. An abundance of miRNA clusters has been found in the genomes of various organisms often located in a polycistron. The miR-17-92 family is among the most famous miRNAs and has been identified as an oncogene. The functions of this cluster, together with the seven individual molecules that it comprises, are most related to cancers, so it would not be surprising that they are considered to have involvement in the development of tumors. The miR-17-92 cluster is therefore expected not only to be a tumor marker, but also to perform an important role in the early diagnosis of those diseases and possibly also be a target for tumor biotherapy. The miR-17-92 cluster affects the development of disease by regulating many related cellular processes and multiple target genes. Interestingly, it also has important roles that cannot be ignored in disease of the nervous system and circulation and modulates the growth and development of bone. Therefore, it provides new opportunities for disease prevention, clinical diagnosis, prognosis, and targeted therapy. Here we review the role of the miR-17-92 cluster that has received little attention in relation to neurological diseases, cardiac diseases, and the development of bone and tumors.

Dlk1-Dio3 locus-derived lncRNAs perpetuate postmitotic motor neuron cell fate and subtype identity

The mammalian imprinted Dlk1-Dio3 locus produces multiple long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) from the maternally inherited allele, including Meg3 (i.e., Gtl2) in the mammalian genome. Although this locus has well-characterized functions in stem cell and tumor contexts, its role during neural development is unknown. By profiling cell types at each stage of embryonic stem cell-derived motor neurons (ESC~MNs) that recapitulate spinal cord development, we uncovered that lncRNAs expressed from the Dlk1-Dio3 locus are predominantly and gradually enriched in rostral motor neurons (MNs). Mechanistically, Meg3 and other Dlk1-Dio3 locus-derived lncRNAs facilitate Ezh2/Jarid2 interactions. Loss of these lncRNAs compromises the H3K27me3 landscape, leading to aberrant expression of progenitor and caudal Hox genes in postmitotic MNs. Our data thus illustrate that these lncRNAs in the Dlk1-Dio3 locus, particularly Meg3, play a critical role in maintaining postmitotic MN cell fate by repressing progenitor genes and they shape MN subtype identity by regulating Hox genes.

When a gene is active, its DNA sequence is ‘transcribed’ to form a molecule of RNA. Many of these RNAs act as templates for making proteins. But for some genes, the protein molecules are not their final destinations. Their RNA molecules instead help to control gene activity, which can alter the behaviour or the identity of a cell. For example, experiments performed in individual cells suggest that so-called long non-coding RNAs (or lncRNAs for short) guide how stem cells develop into different types of mature cells. However, it is not clear whether lncRNAs play the same critical role in embryos.

Yen et al. used embryonic stem cells to model how motor neurons develop in the spinal cord of mouse embryos. This revealed that motor neurons produce large amounts of a specific group of lncRNAs, particularly one called Meg3. Further experiments showed that motor neurons in mouse embryos that lack Meg3 do not correctly silence a set of genes called the Hox genes, which are crucial for laying out the body plans of many different animal embryos. These neurons also incorrectly continue to express genes that are normally active in an early phase of the stem-like cells that make motor neurons.

There is wide interest in how lncRNAs help to regulate embryonic development. With this new knowledge of how Meg3 regulates the activity of Hox genes in motor neurons, research could now be directed toward investigating whether lncRNAs help other tissues to develop in a similar way.

Visualization of Motor Axon Navigation and Quantification of Axon Arborization In Mouse Embryos Using Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy

Spinal motor neurons (MNs) extend their axons to communicate with their innervating targets, thereby controlling movement and complex tasks in vertebrates. Thus, it is critical to uncover the molecular mechanisms of how motor axons navigate to, arborize, and innervate their peripheral muscle targets during development and degeneration. Although transgenic Hb9::GFP mouse lines have long served to visualize motor axon trajectories during embryonic development, detailed descriptions of the full spectrum of axon terminal arborization remain incomplete due to the pattern complexity and limitations of current optical microscopy. Here, we describe an improved protocol that combines light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) and robust image analysis to qualitatively and quantitatively visualize developing motor axons. This system can be easily adopted to cross genetic mutants or MN disease models with Hb9::GFP lines, revealing novel molecular mechanisms that lead to defects in motor axon navigation and arborization.

AKT Hyperactivation and the Potential of AKT-Targeted Therapy in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma

AKT signaling is important for proliferation and survival of tumor cells. The clinical significance of AKT activation in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is not well analyzed. Here, we assessed expression of phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT) in 522 DLBCL patients. We found that high levels of p-AKT nuclear expression, observed in 24.3% of the study cohort, were associated with significantly worse progression-free survival and Myc and Bcl-2 overexpression. However, multivariate analysis indicated that AKT hyperactivation was not an independent factor. miRNA profiling analysis demonstrated that 63 miRNAs directly or indirectly related to the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT/mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway were differentially expressed between DLBCLs with high and low p-AKT nuclear expression. We further targeted AKT signaling using a highly selective AKT inhibitor MK-2206 in 26 representative DLBCL cell lines and delineated signaling alterations using a reverse-phase protein array. MK-2206 treatment inhibited lymphoma cell viability, and MK-2206 sensitivity correlated with AKT activation status in DLBCL cells. On MK-2206 treatment, p-AKT levels and downstream targets of AKT signaling were significantly decreased, likely because of the decreased feedback repression; Rictor and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase expression and other compensatory pathways were also induced. This study demonstrates the clinical and therapeutic implications of AKT hyperactivation in DLBCL and suggests that AKT inhibitors need to be combined with other targeted agents for DLBCL to achieve optimal clinical efficacy.

MicroRNA filters Hox temporal transcription noise to confer boundary formation in the spinal cord

The initial rostrocaudal patterning of the neural tube leads to differential expression of Hox genes that contribute to the specification of motor neuron (MN) subtype identity. Although several 3' Hox mRNAs are expressed in progenitors in a noisy manner, these Hox proteins are not expressed in the progenitors and only become detectable in postmitotic MNs. MicroRNA biogenesis impairment leads to precocious expression and propagates the noise of Hoxa5 at the protein level, resulting in an imprecise Hoxa5-Hoxc8 boundary. Here we uncover, using in silico simulation, two feed-forward Hox-miRNA loops accounting for the precocious and noisy Hoxa5 expression, as well as an ill-defined boundary phenotype in Dicer mutants. Finally, we identify mir-27 as a major regulator coordinating the temporal delay and spatial boundary of Hox protein expression. Our results provide a novel trans Hox-miRNA circuit filtering transcription noise and controlling the timing of protein expression to confer robust individual MN identity.

Differential Sensitivity of Target Genes to Translational Repression by miR-17~92

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are thought to exert their functions by modulating the expression of hundreds of target genes and each to a small degree, but it remains unclear how small changes in hundreds of target genes are translated into the specific function of a miRNA. Here, we conducted an integrated analysis of transcriptome and translatome of primary B cells from mutant mice expressing miR-17~92 at three different levels to address this issue. We found that target genes exhibit differential sensitivity to miRNA suppression and that only a small fraction of target genes are actually suppressed by a given concentration of miRNA under physiological conditions. Transgenic expression and deletion of the same miRNA gene regulate largely distinct sets of target genes. miR-17~92 controls target gene expression mainly through translational repression and 5’UTR plays an important role in regulating target gene sensitivity to miRNA suppression. These findings provide molecular insights into a model in which miRNAs exert their specific functions through a small number of key target genes.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs encoded by our genome. Each miRNA binds hundreds of target mRNAs and performs specific functions. It is thought that miRNAs exert their function by reducing the expression of all these target genes and each to a small degree. However, these target genes often have very diverse functions. It has been unclear how small changes in hundreds of target genes with diverse functions are translated into the specific function of a miRNA. Here we take advantage of recent technical advances to globally examine the mRNA and protein levels of 868 target genes regulated by miR-17~92, the first oncogenic miRNA, in mutant mice with transgenic overexpression or deletion of this miRNA gene. We show that miR-17~92 regulates target gene expression mainly at the protein level, with little effect on mRNA. Surprisingly, only a small fraction of target genes respond to miR-17~92 expression changes. Further studies show that the sensitivity of target genes to miR-17~92 is determined by a non-coding region of target mRNA. Our findings demonstrate that not every target gene is equal, and suggest that the function of a miRNA is mediated by a small number of key target genes.

MicroRNA-17 Suppresses TNF-α Signaling by Interfering with TRAF2 and cIAP2 Association in Rheumatoid Arthritis Synovial Fibroblasts

TNF-α is a major cytokine implicated in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and its expression is regulated at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. However, the impact of changes in microRNA expression on posttranslational processes involved in TNF-α signaling networks is not well defined in RA. In this study, we evaluated the effect of miR-17, a member of the miR-17-92 cluster, on the TNF-α signaling pathway in human RA synovial fibroblasts (SFs). We demonstrated that miR-17 expression was significantly low in RA serum, SFs, and synovial tissues, as well as in the serum and joints of adjuvant-induced arthritis rats. RNA-sequencing analysis showed modulation of 664 genes by pre-miR-17 in human RA SFs. Ingenuity pathway analysis of RNA-sequencing data identified the ubiquitin proteasome system in the TNF-α signaling pathway as a primary target of miR-17. Western blot analysis confirmed the reduction in TRAF2, cIAP1, cIAP2, USP2, and PSMD13 expression by miR-17 in TNF-α-stimulated RA SFs. Immunoprecipitation assays showed that miR-17 restoration increased the K48-linked polyubiquitination of TRAF2, cIAP1, and cIAP2 in TNF-α-stimulated RA SFs. Thus, destabilization of TRAF2 by miR-17 reduced the ability of TRAF2 to associate with cIAP2, resulting in the downregulation of TNF-α-induced NF-κBp65, c-Jun, and STAT3 nuclear translocation and the production of IL-6, IL-8, MMP-1, and MMP-13 in human RA SFs. In conclusion, this study provides evidence for the role of miR-17 as a negative regulator of TNF-α signaling by modulating the protein ubiquitin processes in RA SFs.