Homeodomain Proteins Directly Regulate ATM Kinase Activity

The role of transcription factor caudal-related homeobox transcription factor 2 in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most malignant tumors in humans and causes mass mortality. In the age of precise medicine, more and more subtypes of CRC were classified. The caudal-related homeobox transcription factor 2 (CDX2) is an intestine-specific transcription factor which is implicated in differentiation, proliferation, cell-adhesion, and migration. The loss of CDX2 in immunohistochemical stain was reported to be a prognostic factor of colon cancer, but the clinical application remained controversial. Most of the CRCs expressed or over-expressed CDX2. Homeobox genes can display either an oncogenic or a tumor-suppressing activity. CDX2 regulates the developing intestinal epithelium and CRC by different pathways. The complex regulation of CDX2 and its complex targets cause the difficulties of application for CDX2 in the prediction of prognosis. However, CDX2 is a potential biomarker applied in the precise classification of CRC for personalized medicine. This review partially clarifies the role of CDX2 in CRC.

Poly(ADP-ribose)-dependent chromatin unfolding facilitates the association of DNA-binding proteins with DNA at sites of damage

The addition of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) chains along the chromatin fiber due to PARP1 activity regulates the recruitment of multiple factors to sites of DNA damage. In this manuscript, we investigated how, besides direct binding to PAR, early chromatin unfolding events controlled by PAR signaling contribute to recruitment to DNA lesions. We observed that different DNA-binding, but not histone-binding, domains accumulate at damaged chromatin in a PAR-dependent manner, and that this recruitment correlates with their affinity for DNA. Our findings indicate that this recruitment is promoted by early PAR-dependent chromatin remodeling rather than direct interaction with PAR. Moreover, recruitment is not the consequence of reduced molecular crowding at unfolded damaged chromatin but instead originates from facilitated binding to more exposed DNA. These findings are further substantiated by the observation that PAR-dependent chromatin remodeling at DNA lesions underlies increased DNAse hypersensitivity. Finally, the relevance of this new mode of PAR-dependent recruitment to DNA lesions is demonstrated by the observation that reducing the affinity for DNA of both CHD4 and HP1α, two proteins shown to be involved in the DNA-damage response, strongly impairs their recruitment to DNA lesions.

Clinical potential of ATM inhibitors

The protein defective in the human genetic disorder ataxia-telangiectasia, ATM, plays a central role in responding to DNA double strand breaks and other lesions to protect the genome against DNA damage and in this way minimize the risk of mutations that can lead to abnormal cellular behaviour. Its function in normal cells is to protect the cell against genotoxic stress but inadvertently it can assist cancer cells by providing resistance against chemotherapeutic agents and thus favouring tumour growth and survival. However, it is now evident that ATM also functions in a DNA damage-independent fashion to protect the cell against other forms of stress such as oxidative and nutrient stress and this non-canonical mechanism may also be relevant to cancer susceptibility in individuals who lack a functional ATM gene. Thus the use of ATM inhibitors to combat resistance in tumours may extend beyond a role for this protein in the DNA damage response. Here, we provide some background on ATM and its activation and investigate the efficacy of ATM inhibitors in treating cancer.

ATM in DNA repair in cancer

Alterations in DNA damage response (DDR) pathways are hallmarks of cancer. Incorrect repair of DNA lesions often leads to genomic instability. Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), a core component of the DNA repair system, is activated to enhance the homologous recombination (HR) repair pathway upon DNA double-strand breaks. Although ATM signaling has been widely studied in different types of cancer, its research is still lacking compared with other DDR-involved molecules such as PARP and ATR. There is still a vast research opportunity for the development of ATM inhibitors as anticancer agents. Here, we focus on the recent findings of ATM signaling in DNA repair of cancer. Previous studies have identified several partners of ATM, some of which promote ATM signaling, while others have the opposite effect. ATM inhibitors, including KU-55933, KU-60019, KU-59403, CP-466722, AZ31, AZ32, AZD0156, and AZD1390, have been evaluated for their antitumor effects. It has been revealed that ATM inhibition increases a cancer cell's sensitivity to radiotherapy. Moreover, the combination with PARP or ATR inhibitors has synergistic lethality in some cancers. Of note, among these ATM inhibitors, AZD0156 and AZD1390 achieve potent and highly selective ATM kinase inhibition and have an excellent ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Currently, AZD0156 and AZD1390 are under investigation in phase I clinical trials. Taken together, targeting ATM may be a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Hence, further development of ATM inhibitors is urgently needed in cancer research.