1
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Krause M, Samolej J, Yakimovich A, Kriston-Vizi J, Huttunen M, Lara-Reyna S, Frickel EM, Mercer J. Vaccinia virus subverts xenophagy through phosphorylation and nuclear targeting of p62. J Cell Biol 2024; 223:e202104129. [PMID: 38709216 PMCID: PMC11076808 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202104129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an essential degradation program required for cell homeostasis. Among its functions is the engulfment and destruction of cytosolic pathogens, termed xenophagy. Not surprisingly, many pathogens use various strategies to circumvent or co-opt autophagic degradation. For poxviruses, it is known that infection activates autophagy, which however is not required for successful replication. Even though these complex viruses replicate exclusively in the cytoplasm, autophagy-mediated control of poxvirus infection has not been extensively explored. Using the prototypic poxvirus, vaccinia virus (VACV), we show that overexpression of the xenophagy receptors p62, NDP52, and Tax1Bp1 restricts poxvirus infection. While NDP52 and Tax1Bp1 were degraded, p62 initially targeted cytoplasmic virions before being shunted to the nucleus. Nuclear translocation of p62 was dependent upon p62 NLS2 and correlated with VACV kinase mediated phosphorylation of p62 T269/S272. This suggests that VACV targets p62 during the early stages of infection to avoid destruction and further implies that poxviruses exhibit multi-layered control of autophagy to facilitate cytoplasmic replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Krause
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jerzy Samolej
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, UK
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Artur Yakimovich
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Janos Kriston-Vizi
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Moona Huttunen
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, UK
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Samuel Lara-Reyna
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Eva-Maria Frickel
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Jason Mercer
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, UK
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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2
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Hsu J, Kim S, Anandasabapathy N. Vaccinia Virus: Mechanisms Supporting Immune Evasion and Successful Long-Term Protective Immunity. Viruses 2024; 16:870. [PMID: 38932162 PMCID: PMC11209207 DOI: 10.3390/v16060870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus is the most successful vaccine in human history and functions as a protective vaccine against smallpox and monkeypox, highlighting the importance of ongoing research into vaccinia due to its genetic similarity to other emergent poxviruses. Moreover, vaccinia's ability to accommodate large genetic insertions makes it promising for vaccine development and potential therapeutic applications, such as oncolytic agents. Thus, understanding how superior immunity is generated by vaccinia is crucial for designing other effective and safe vaccine strategies. During vaccinia inoculation by scarification, the skin serves as a primary site for the virus-host interaction, with various cell types playing distinct roles. During this process, hematopoietic cells undergo abortive infections, while non-hematopoietic cells support the full viral life cycle. This differential permissiveness to viral replication influences subsequent innate and adaptive immune responses. Dendritic cells (DCs), key immune sentinels in peripheral tissues such as skin, are pivotal in generating T cell memory during vaccinia immunization. DCs residing in the skin capture viral antigens and migrate to the draining lymph nodes (dLN), where they undergo maturation and present processed antigens to T cells. Notably, CD8+ T cells are particularly significant in viral clearance and the establishment of long-term protective immunity. Here, we will discuss vaccinia virus, its continued relevance to public health, and viral strategies permissive to immune escape. We will also discuss key events and populations leading to long-term protective immunity and remaining key gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joy Hsu
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Englander Institute of Precision Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Suyon Kim
- Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA;
| | - Niroshana Anandasabapathy
- Department of Dermatology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
- Englander Institute of Precision Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
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3
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Lu Y, Zhao Y, Gao C, Suresh S, Men J, Sawyers A, Smith GL. HDAC5 enhances IRF3 activation and is targeted for degradation by protein C6 from orthopoxviruses including Monkeypox virus and Variola virus. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113788. [PMID: 38461415 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.113788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) regulate gene expression and innate immunity. Previously, we showed that HDAC5 is degraded during Vaccinia virus (VACV) infection and is a restriction factor for VACV and herpes simplex virus type 1. Here, we report that HDAC5 promotes interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) activation downstream of Toll-IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor molecule-1 or Sendai virus-mediated stimulation without requiring HDAC activity. Loss of HDAC5-mediated IRF3 activation is restored by re-introduction of HDAC5 but not HDAC1 or HDAC4. The antiviral activity of HDAC5 is antagonized by VACV protein C6 and orthologs from the orthopoxviruses cowpox, rabbitpox, camelpox, monkeypox, and variola. Infection by many of these viruses induces proteasomal degradation of HDAC5, and expression of C6 alone can induce HDAC5 degradation. Mechanistically, C6 binds to the dimerization domain of HDAC5 and prevents homodimerization and heterodimerization with HDAC4. Overall, this study describes HDAC5 as a positive regulator of IRF3 activation and provides mechanistic insight into how the poxviral protein C6 binds to HDAC5 to antagonize its function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongxu Lu
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK; Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK; Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences-Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Yiqi Zhao
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK; Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK; Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences-Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Chen Gao
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Shreehari Suresh
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Jinghao Men
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Amelia Sawyers
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK; Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK; The Pirbright Institute, Surrey, UK; Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences-Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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4
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Gong Q, Ren S, Dou Y, Tadele BA, Hu T, Zhou L, Wang T, Yao K, Xu J, Yin X, Sun Y. Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Capsid Protein VP1 Antagonizes Type I Interferon Signaling via Degradation of Histone Deacetylase 5. Cells 2024; 13:539. [PMID: 38534383 PMCID: PMC10969541 DOI: 10.3390/cells13060539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically important disease of cloven-hoofed animals that hampers trade and production. To ensure effective infection, the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) evades host antiviral pathways in different ways. Although the effect of histone deacetylase 5 (HDAC5) on the innate immune response has previously been documented, the precise molecular mechanism underlying HDAC5-mediated FMDV infection is not yet clearly understood. In this study, we found that silencing or knockout of HDAC5 promoted FMDV replication, whereas HDAC5 overexpression significantly inhibited FMDV propagation. IFN-β and IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) activity was strongly activated through the overexpression of HDAC5. The silencing and knockout of HDAC5 led to an increase in viral replication, which was evident by decreased IFN-β, ISG15, and ISG56 production, as well as a noticeable reduction in IRF3 phosphorylation. Moreover, the results showed that the FMDV capsid protein VP1 targets HDAC5 and facilitates its degradation via the proteasomal pathway. In conclusion, this study highlights that HDAC5 acts as a positive modulator of IFN-β production during viral infection, while FMDV capsid protein VP1 antagonizes the HDAC5-mediated antiviral immune response by degrading HDAC5 to facilitate viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Shanhui Ren
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Yongxi Dou
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Berihun Afera Tadele
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Tao Hu
- The First Clinical Medical College, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Luoyi Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hebei Normal University of Science & Technology, Qinhuangdao 066600, China
| | - Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
- School of Dentistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Kaishen Yao
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Jian Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Xiangping Yin
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
| | - Yuefeng Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China (S.R.)
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5
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Georgana I, Scutts SR, Gao C, Lu Y, Torres AA, Ren H, Emmott E, Men J, Oei K, Smith GL. Filamin B restricts vaccinia virus spread and is targeted by vaccinia virus protein C4. J Virol 2024; 98:e0148523. [PMID: 38412044 PMCID: PMC10949515 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01485-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VACV) is a large DNA virus that encodes scores of proteins that modulate the host immune response. VACV protein C4 is one such immunomodulator known to inhibit the activation of both the NF-κB signaling cascade and the DNA-PK-mediated DNA sensing pathway. Here, we show that the N-terminal region of C4, which neither inhibits NF-κB nor mediates interaction with DNA-PK, still contributes to virus virulence. Furthermore, this domain interacts directly and with high affinity to the C-terminal domain of filamin B (FLNB). FLNB is a large actin-binding protein that stabilizes the F-actin network and is implicated in other cellular processes. Deletion of FLNB from cells results in larger VACV plaques and increased infectious viral yield, indicating that FLNB restricts VACV spread. These data demonstrate that C4 has a new function that contributes to virulence and engages the cytoskeleton. Furthermore, we show that the cytoskeleton performs further previously uncharacterized functions during VACV infection. IMPORTANCE Vaccinia virus (VACV), the vaccine against smallpox and monkeypox, encodes many proteins to counteract the host immune response. Investigating these proteins provides insights into viral immune evasion mechanisms and thereby indicates how to engineer safer and more immunogenic VACV-based vaccines. Here, we report that the N-terminal domain of VACV protein C4 interacts directly with the cytoskeletal protein filamin B (FLNB), and this domain of C4 contributes to virus virulence. Furthermore, VACV replicates and spreads better in cells lacking FLNB, thus demonstrating that FLNB has antiviral activity. VACV utilizes the cytoskeleton for movement within and between cells; however, previous studies show no involvement of C4 in VACV replication or spread. Thus, C4 associates with FLNB for a different reason, suggesting that the cytoskeleton has further uncharacterized roles during virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iliana Georgana
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Simon R. Scutts
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Chen Gao
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Yongxu Lu
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alice A. Torres
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Hongwei Ren
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Edward Emmott
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jinghao Men
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Keefe Oei
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Geoffrey L. Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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6
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Albarnaz JD, Kite J, Oliveira M, Li H, Di Y, Christensen MH, Paulo JA, Antrobus R, Gygi SP, Schmidt FI, Huttlin EL, Smith GL, Weekes MP. Quantitative proteomics defines mechanisms of antiviral defence and cell death during modified vaccinia Ankara infection. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8134. [PMID: 38065956 PMCID: PMC10709566 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43299-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) virus does not replicate in human cells and is the vaccine deployed to curb the current outbreak of mpox. Here, we conduct a multiplexed proteomic analysis to quantify >9000 cellular and ~80% of viral proteins throughout MVA infection of human fibroblasts and macrophages. >690 human proteins are down-regulated >2-fold by MVA, revealing a substantial remodelling of the host proteome. >25% of these MVA targets are not shared with replication-competent vaccinia. Viral intermediate/late gene expression is necessary for MVA antagonism of innate immunity, and suppression of interferon effectors such as ISG20 potentiates virus gene expression. Proteomic changes specific to infection of macrophages indicate modulation of the inflammatory response, including inflammasome activation. Our approach thus provides a global view of the impact of MVA on the human proteome and identifies mechanisms that may underpin its abortive infection. These discoveries will prove vital to design future generations of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas D Albarnaz
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK.
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK.
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Joanne Kite
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Marisa Oliveira
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Hanqi Li
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Ying Di
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | | | - Joao A Paulo
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Robin Antrobus
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Steven P Gygi
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Florian I Schmidt
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University of Bonn, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Edward L Huttlin
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Michael P Weekes
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK.
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK.
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7
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Stewart H, Lu Y, O’Keefe S, Valpadashi A, Cruz-Zaragoza LD, Michel HA, Nguyen SK, Carnell GW, Lukhovitskaya N, Milligan R, Adewusi Y, Jungreis I, Lulla V, Matthews DA, High S, Rehling P, Emmott E, Heeney JL, Davidson AD, Edgar JR, Smith GL, Firth AE. The SARS-CoV-2 protein ORF3c is a mitochondrial modulator of innate immunity. iScience 2023; 26:108080. [PMID: 37860693 PMCID: PMC10583119 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 genome encodes a multitude of accessory proteins. Using comparative genomic approaches, an additional accessory protein, ORF3c, has been predicted to be encoded within the ORF3a sgmRNA. Expression of ORF3c during infection has been confirmed independently by ribosome profiling. Despite ORF3c also being present in the 2002-2003 SARS-CoV, its function has remained unexplored. Here we show that ORF3c localizes to mitochondria, where it inhibits innate immunity by restricting IFN-β production, but not NF-κB activation or JAK-STAT signaling downstream of type I IFN stimulation. We find that ORF3c is inhibitory after stimulation with cytoplasmic RNA helicases RIG-I or MDA5 or adaptor protein MAVS, but not after TRIF, TBK1 or phospho-IRF3 stimulation. ORF3c co-immunoprecipitates with the antiviral proteins MAVS and PGAM5 and induces MAVS cleavage by caspase-3. Together, these data provide insight into an uncharacterized mechanism of innate immune evasion by this important human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel Stewart
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Yongxu Lu
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sarah O’Keefe
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Anusha Valpadashi
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | | | | | - George W. Carnell
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Rachel Milligan
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Yasmin Adewusi
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Irwin Jungreis
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Valeria Lulla
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - David A. Matthews
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Stephen High
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Peter Rehling
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Edward Emmott
- Centre for Proteome Research, Department of Biochemistry & Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Jonathan L. Heeney
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Andrew D. Davidson
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - James R. Edgar
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Andrew E. Firth
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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8
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Semenov DV, Vasileva NS, Dymova MA, Mishinov SV, Savinovskaya YI, Ageenko AB, Dome AS, Zinchenko ND, Stepanov GA, Kochneva GV, Richter VA, Kuligina EV. Transcriptome Changes in Glioma Cells upon Infection with the Oncolytic Virus VV-GMCSF-Lact. Cells 2023; 12:2616. [PMID: 37998351 PMCID: PMC10670333 DOI: 10.3390/cells12222616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy is a rapidly evolving approach that aims to selectively kill cancer cells. We designed a promising recombinant vaccinia virus, VV-GMCSF-Lact, for the treatment of solid tumors, including glioma. We assessed how VV-GMCSF-Lact affects human cells using immortalized and patient-derived glioma cultures and a non-malignant brain cell culture. Studying transcriptome changes in cells 12 h or 24 h after VV-GMCSF-Lact infection, we detected the common activation of histone genes. Additionally, genes associated with the interferon-gamma response, NF-kappa B signaling pathway, and inflammation mediated by chemokine and cytokine signaling pathways showed increased expression. By contrast, genes involved in cell cycle progression, including spindle organization, sister chromatid segregation, and the G2/M checkpoint, were downregulated following virus infection. The upregulation of genes responsible for Golgi vesicles, protein transport, and secretion correlated with reduced sensitivity to the cytotoxic effect of VV-GMCSF-Lact. Higher expression of genes encoding proteins, which participate in the maturation of pol II nuclear transcripts and mRNA splicing, was associated with an increased sensitivity to viral cytotoxicity. Genes whose expression correlates with the sensitivity of cells to the virus are important for increasing the effectiveness of cancer virotherapy. Overall, the results highlight molecular markers, biological pathways, and gene networks influencing the response of glioma cells to VV-GMCSF-Lact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy V. Semenov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Natalia S. Vasileva
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Maya A. Dymova
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Sergey V. Mishinov
- Novosibirsk Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopedics n.a. Ya.L. Tsivyan, Department of Neurosurgery, Frunze Street, 17, 630091 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Yulya I. Savinovskaya
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Alisa B. Ageenko
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Anton S. Dome
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Nikita D. Zinchenko
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Grigory A. Stepanov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Galina V. Kochneva
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, 630559 Koltsovo, Russia;
| | - Vladimir A. Richter
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
| | - Elena V. Kuligina
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentyev Avenue, 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (N.S.V.); (M.A.D.); (Y.I.S.); (A.B.A.); (A.S.D.); (N.D.Z.); (G.A.S.); (V.A.R.); (E.V.K.)
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9
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Zhao Y, Lu Y, Richardson S, Sreekumar M, Albarnaz JD, Smith GL. TRIM5α restricts poxviruses and is antagonized by CypA and the viral protein C6. Nature 2023; 620:873-880. [PMID: 37558876 PMCID: PMC10447239 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06401-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
Human tripartite motif protein 5α (TRIM5α) is a well-characterized restriction factor for some RNA viruses, including HIV1-5; however, reports are limited for DNA viruses6,7. Here we demonstrate that TRIM5α also restricts orthopoxviruses and, via its SPRY domain, binds to the orthopoxvirus capsid protein L3 to diminish virus replication and activate innate immunity. In response, several orthopoxviruses, including vaccinia, rabbitpox, cowpox, monkeypox, camelpox and variola viruses, deploy countermeasures. First, the protein C6 binds to TRIM5 via the RING domain to induce its proteasome-dependent degradation. Second, cyclophilin A (CypA) is recruited via interaction with the capsid protein L3 to virus factories and virions to antagonize TRIM5α; this interaction is prevented by cyclosporine A (CsA) and the non-immunosuppressive derivatives alisporivir and NIM811. Both the proviral effect of CypA and the antiviral effect of CsA are dependent on TRIM5α. CsA, alisporivir and NIM811 have antiviral activity against orthopoxviruses, and because these drugs target a cellular protein, CypA, the emergence of viral drug resistance is difficult. These results warrant testing of CsA derivatives against orthopoxviruses, including monkeypox and variola.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqi Zhao
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Yongxu Lu
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | | | - Jonas D Albarnaz
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- The Pirbright Institute, Surrey, UK.
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences-Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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10
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Yin Z, Chen JL, Lu Y, Wang B, Godfrey L, Mentzer AJ, Yao X, Liu G, Wellington D, Zhao Y, Wing PAC, Dejnirattisa W, Supasa P, Liu C, Hublitz P, Beveridge R, Waugh C, Clark SA, Clark K, Sopp P, Rostron T, Mongkolsapaya J, Screaton GR, Ogg G, Ewer K, Pollard AJ, Gilbert S, Knight JC, Lambe T, Smith GL, Dong T, Peng Y. Evaluation of T cell responses to naturally processed variant SARS-CoV-2 spike antigens in individuals following infection or vaccination. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112470. [PMID: 37141092 PMCID: PMC10121105 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Most existing studies characterizing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-specific T cell responses are peptide based. This does not allow evaluation of whether tested peptides are processed and presented canonically. In this study, we use recombinant vaccinia virus (rVACV)-mediated expression of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and SARS-CoV-2 infection of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-2-transduced B cell lines to evaluate overall T cell responses in a small cohort of recovered COVID-19 patients and uninfected donors vaccinated with ChAdOx1 nCoV-19. We show that rVACV expression of SARS-CoV-2 antigen can be used as an alternative to SARS-CoV-2 infection to evaluate T cell responses to naturally processed spike antigens. In addition, the rVACV system can be used to evaluate the cross-reactivity of memory T cells to variants of concern (VOCs) and to identify epitope escape mutants. Finally, our data show that both natural infection and vaccination could induce multi-functional T cell responses with overall T cell responses remaining despite the identification of escape mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixi Yin
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Ji-Li Chen
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Yongxu Lu
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Beibei Wang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Leila Godfrey
- Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LE, UK
| | - Alexander J Mentzer
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Xuan Yao
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Guihai Liu
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Dannielle Wellington
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Yiqi Zhao
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Peter A C Wing
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Wanwisa Dejnirattisa
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Division of Emerging Infectious Disease, Research Department, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
| | - Piyada Supasa
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Chang Liu
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Philip Hublitz
- Genome Engineering Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Ryan Beveridge
- Screening Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Craig Waugh
- Flow Cytometry Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Sally-Ann Clark
- Flow Cytometry Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Kevin Clark
- Flow Cytometry Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Paul Sopp
- Flow Cytometry Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Timothy Rostron
- Sequencing Facility, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Juthathip Mongkolsapaya
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Gavin R Screaton
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Graham Ogg
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Katie Ewer
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Andrew J Pollard
- Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LE, UK; Pandemic Sciences Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; National Institute for Health Research Oxford Biomedical Research Center, Oxford, UK
| | - Sarah Gilbert
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Pandemic Sciences Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Julian C Knight
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Teresa Lambe
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Oxford Vaccine Group, Department of Paediatrics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7LE, UK; Pandemic Sciences Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK.
| | - Tao Dong
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK.
| | - Yanchun Peng
- Chinese Academy of Medical Science (CAMS) Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; MRC Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK.
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11
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Lu J, Liu W, Chen XZ, Wang Y, Ying T, Qiao L, Liu YJ, Liu B. Temporal proteomic profiling reveals functional pathways in vaccinia virus-induced cell migration. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1185960. [PMID: 37303799 PMCID: PMC10249495 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1185960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Viral diseases have always been intricate and persistent issues throughout the world and there is a lack of holistic discoveries regarding the molecular dysregulations of virus-host interactions. The temporal proteomics strategy can identify various differentially expressed proteins and offer collaborated interaction networks under pathological conditions. Method Herein, temporal proteomics at various hours post infection of Vero cells were launched to uncover molecular alternations during vaccinia virus (VACV)-induced cell migration. Different stages of infection were included to differentiate gene ontologies and critical pathways at specific time points of infection via bioinformatics. Results Bioinformatic results showed functional and distinct ontologies and pathways at different stages of virus infection. The enrichment of interaction networks and pathways verified the significances of the regulation of actin cytoskeleton and lamellipodia during VACV-induced fast cell motility. Discussion The current results offer a systematic proteomic profiling of molecular dysregulations at different stages of VACV infection and potential biomedical targets for treating viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayin Lu
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xue-Zhu Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiwen Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tianlei Ying
- MOE/NHC/CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology, Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liang Qiao
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan-Jun Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Baohong Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism (Ministry of Science and Technology), State Key Lab of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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12
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Hesser CR, Walsh D. YTHDF2 Is Downregulated in Response to Host Shutoff Induced by DNA Virus Infection and Regulates Interferon-Stimulated Gene Expression. J Virol 2023; 97:e0175822. [PMID: 36916936 PMCID: PMC10062140 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01758-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have begun to reveal the complex and multifunctional roles of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modifications and their associated writer, reader, and eraser proteins in infection by diverse RNA and DNA viruses. However, little is known about their regulation and functions during infection by several viruses, including poxviruses. Here, we show that members of the YTH Domain Family (YTHDF), in particular YTHDF2, are downregulated as the prototypical poxvirus, vaccinia virus (VacV) enters later stages of replication in a variety of natural target cell types, but not in commonly used transformed cell lines wherein the control of YTHDF2 expression appears to be dysregulated. YTHDF proteins also decreased at late stages of infection by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) but not human cytomegalovirus, suggesting that YTHDF2 is downregulated in response to infections that induce host shutoff. In line with this idea, YTHDF2 was potently downregulated upon infection with a VacV mutant expressing catalytically inactive forms of the decapping enzymes, D9 and D10, which fails to degrade dsRNA and induces a protein kinase R response that itself inhibits protein synthesis. Overexpression and RNAi-mediated depletion approaches further demonstrate that YTHDF2 does not directly affect VacV replication. Instead, experimental downregulation of YTHDF2 or the related family member, YTHDF1, induces a potent increase in interferon-stimulated gene expression and establishes an antiviral state that suppresses infection by either VacV or HSV-1. Combined, our data suggest that YTHDF2 is destabilized in response to infection-induced host shutoff and serves to augment host antiviral responses. IMPORTANCE There is increasing recognition of the importance of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modifications to both viral and host mRNAs and the complex roles this modification plays in determining the fate of infection by diverse RNA and DNA viruses. However, in many instances, the functional contributions and importance of specific m6A writer, reader, and eraser proteins remains unknown. Here, we show that natural target cells but not transformed cell lines downregulate the YTH Domain Family (YTHDF) of m6A reader proteins, in particular YTHDF2, in response to shutoff of protein synthesis upon infection with the large DNA viruses, vaccinia virus (VacV), or herpes simplex virus type 1. We further reveal that YTHDF2 downregulation also occurs as part of the host protein kinase R response to a VacV shutoff mutant and that this downregulation of YTHDF family members functions to enhance interferon-stimulated gene expression to create an antiviral state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R. Hesser
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Derek Walsh
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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13
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Albarnaz JD, Weekes MP. Proteomic analysis of antiviral innate immunity. Curr Opin Virol 2023; 58:101291. [PMID: 36529073 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2022.101291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The capacity of host cells to detect and restrict an infecting virus rests on an array of cell-autonomous antiviral effectors and innate immune receptors that can trigger inflammatory processes at tissue and organismal levels. Dynamic changes in protein abundance, subcellular localisation, post-translational modifications and interactions with other biomolecules govern these processes. Proteomics is therefore an ideal experimental tool to discover novel mechanisms of host antiviral immunity. Additional information can be gleaned both about host and virus by systematic analysis of viral immune evasion strategies. In this review, we summarise recent advances in proteomic technologies and their application to antiviral innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas D Albarnaz
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, CB2 0XY Cambridge, UK
| | - Michael P Weekes
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, CB2 0XY Cambridge, UK.
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14
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Saghazadeh A, Rezaei N. Poxviruses and the immune system: Implications for monkeypox virus. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 113:109364. [PMID: 36283221 PMCID: PMC9598838 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Poxviruses (PXVs) are mostly known for the variola virus, being the cause of smallpox; however, re-emerging PXVs have also shown a great capacity to develop outbreaks of pox-like infections in humans. The situation is alarming; PXV outbreaks have been involving both endemic and non-endemic areas in recent decades. Stopped smallpox vaccination is a reason offered mainly for this changing epidemiology that implies the protective role of immunity in the pathology of PXV infections. The immune system recognizes PXVs and elicits responses, but PXVs can antagonize these responses. Here, we briefly review the immunology of PXV infections, with emphasis on the role of pattern-recognition receptors, macrophages, and natural killer cells in the early response to PXV infections and PXVs’ strategies influencing these responses, as well as taking a glance at other immune cells, which discussion over them mainly occurs in association with PXV immunization rather than PXV infection. Throughout the review, numerous evasion mechanisms are highlighted, which might have implications for designing specific immunotherapies for PXV in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amene Saghazadeh
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Expert Group (SRMEG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.
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15
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Gigante CM, Korber B, Seabolt MH, Wilkins K, Davidson W, Rao AK, Zhao H, Smith TG, Hughes CM, Minhaj F, Waltenburg MA, Theiler J, Smole S, Gallagher GR, Blythe D, Myers R, Schulte J, Stringer J, Lee P, Mendoza RM, Griffin-Thomas LA, Crain J, Murray J, Atkinson A, Gonzalez AH, Nash J, Batra D, Damon I, McQuiston J, Hutson CL, McCollum AM, Li Y. Multiple lineages of monkeypox virus detected in the United States, 2021-2022. Science 2022; 378:560-565. [PMID: 36264825 DOI: 10.1126/science.add4153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Monkeypox is a viral zoonotic disease endemic in Central and West Africa. In May 2022, dozens of non-endemic countries reported hundreds of monkeypox cases, most with no epidemiological link to Africa. We identified two lineages of monkeypox virus (MPXV) among two 2021 and seven 2022 US monkeypox cases: the major 2022 outbreak variant called B.1 and a minor contemporaneously sampled variant called A.2. Analyses of mutations among these two variants revealed an extreme preference for GA-to-AA mutations indicative of human APOBEC3 cytosine deaminase activity among Clade IIb MPXV (previously West African, Nigeria) sampled since 2017. Such mutations were not enriched within other MPXV clades. These findings suggest that APOBEC3 editing may be a recurrent and a dominant driver of MPXV evolution within the current outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal M Gigante
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bette Korber
- T-6: Theoretical Biology and Biophysics, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA; New Mexico Consortium, Los Alamos, NM, USA
| | - Matthew H Seabolt
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Leidos Inc., Reston, VA 20190, USA
| | - Kimberly Wilkins
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Whitni Davidson
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Agam K Rao
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hui Zhao
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Todd G Smith
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Christine M Hughes
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Faisal Minhaj
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Michelle A Waltenburg
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - James Theiler
- ISR-3: Space Data Science and Systems, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
| | - Sandra Smole
- Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA
| | - Glen R Gallagher
- Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA
| | - David Blythe
- Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Outbreak Response Bureau, Maryland Department of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Robert Myers
- Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Outbreak Response Bureau, Maryland Department of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joann Schulte
- Dallas County Health and Human Services Public Health Laboratory, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Joey Stringer
- Dallas County Health and Human Services Public Health Laboratory, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Philip Lee
- Florida Department of Health Bureau of Public Health Laboratories-Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Rafael M Mendoza
- Florida Department of Health in Broward County, Hollywood, FL, USA
| | - LaToya A Griffin-Thomas
- Virginia Department of General Services, Division of Consolidated Laboratory Services, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Jenny Crain
- Virginia Department of Health, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Jade Murray
- Utah Department of Health and Human Services, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Annette Atkinson
- Utah Department of Health and Human Services, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - June Nash
- Sacramento County Public Health, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Dhwani Batra
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Inger Damon
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jennifer McQuiston
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Christina L Hutson
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Andrea M McCollum
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yu Li
- National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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16
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Isidro J, Borges V, Pinto M, Sobral D, Santos JD, Nunes A, Mixão V, Ferreira R, Santos D, Duarte S, Vieira L, Borrego MJ, Núncio S, de Carvalho IL, Pelerito A, Cordeiro R, Gomes JP. Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus. Nat Med 2022; 28:1569-1572. [PMID: 35750157 PMCID: PMC9388373 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-022-01907-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 366] [Impact Index Per Article: 183.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The largest monkeypox virus (MPXV) outbreak described so far in non-endemic countries was identified in May 2022 (refs. 1-6). In this study, shotgun metagenomics allowed the rapid reconstruction and phylogenomic characterization of the first MPXV outbreak genome sequences, showing that this MPXV belongs to clade 3 and that the outbreak most likely has a single origin. Although 2022 MPXV (lineage B.1) clustered with 2018-2019 cases linked to an endemic country, it segregates in a divergent phylogenetic branch, likely reflecting continuous accelerated evolution. An in-depth mutational analysis suggests the action of host APOBEC3 in viral evolution as well as signs of potential MPXV human adaptation in ongoing microevolution. Our findings also indicate that genome sequencing may provide resolution to track the spread and transmission of this presumably slow-evolving double-stranded DNA virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Isidro
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Vítor Borges
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Miguel Pinto
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Daniel Sobral
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Dourado Santos
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alexandra Nunes
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Verónica Mixão
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rita Ferreira
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Daniela Santos
- Technology and Innovation Unit, Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Silvia Duarte
- Technology and Innovation Unit, Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Luís Vieira
- Technology and Innovation Unit, Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria José Borrego
- National Reference Laboratory of Sexually Transmitted Infections, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sofia Núncio
- Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Isabel Lopes de Carvalho
- Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Pelerito
- Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rita Cordeiro
- Emergency Response and Biopreparedness Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Gomes
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal.
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, Lisbon, Portugal.
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17
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Depierreux DM, Altenburg AF, Soday L, Fletcher-Etherington A, Antrobus R, Ferguson BJ, Weekes MP, Smith GL. Selective modulation of cell surface proteins during vaccinia infection: A resource for identifying viral immune evasion strategies. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010612. [PMID: 35727847 PMCID: PMC9307158 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction between immune cells and virus-infected targets involves multiple plasma membrane (PM) proteins. A systematic study of PM protein modulation by vaccinia virus (VACV), the paradigm of host regulation, has the potential to reveal not only novel viral immune evasion mechanisms, but also novel factors critical in host immunity. Here, >1000 PM proteins were quantified throughout VACV infection, revealing selective downregulation of known T and NK cell ligands including HLA-C, downregulation of cytokine receptors including IFNAR2, IL-6ST and IL-10RB, and rapid inhibition of expression of certain protocadherins and ephrins, candidate activating immune ligands. Downregulation of most PM proteins occurred via a proteasome-independent mechanism. Upregulated proteins included a decoy receptor for TRAIL. Twenty VACV-encoded PM proteins were identified, of which five were not recognised previously as such. Collectively, this dataset constitutes a valuable resource for future studies on antiviral immunity, host-pathogen interaction, poxvirus biology, vector-based vaccine design and oncolytic therapy. Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the vaccine used to eradicate smallpox and an excellent model for studying host-pathogen interactions. Many VACV-mediated immune evasion strategies are known, however how immune cells recognise VACV-infected cells is incompletely understood because of the complexity of surface proteins regulating such interactions. Here, a systematic study of proteins on the cell surface at different times during infection with VACV is presented. This shows not only the precise nature and kinetics of appearance of VACV proteins, but also the selective alteration of cellular surface proteins. The latter thereby identified potential novel immune evasion strategies and host proteins regulating immune activation. Comprehensive comparisons with published datasets provided further insight into mechanisms used to regulate surface protein expression. Such comparisons also identified proteins that are targeted by both VACV and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), and which are therefore likely to represent host proteins regulating immune recognition and activation. Collectively, this work provides a valuable resource for studying viral immune evasion mechanisms and novel host proteins critical in host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lior Soday
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Robin Antrobus
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Michael P. Weekes
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (MPW); (GLS)
| | - Geoffrey L. Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (MPW); (GLS)
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18
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Talbot-Cooper C, Pantelejevs T, Shannon JP, Cherry CR, Au MT, Hyvönen M, Hickman HD, Smith GL. Poxviruses and paramyxoviruses use a conserved mechanism of STAT1 antagonism to inhibit interferon signaling. Cell Host Microbe 2022; 30:357-372.e11. [PMID: 35182467 PMCID: PMC8912257 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The induction of interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes by STATs is a critical host defense mechanism against virus infection. Here, we report that a highly expressed poxvirus protein, 018, inhibits IFN-induced signaling by binding to the SH2 domain of STAT1, thereby preventing the association of STAT1 with an activated IFN receptor. Despite encoding other inhibitors of IFN-induced signaling, a poxvirus mutant lacking 018 was attenuated in mice. The 2.0 Å crystal structure of the 018:STAT1 complex reveals a phosphotyrosine-independent mode of 018 binding to the SH2 domain of STAT1. Moreover, the STAT1-binding motif of 018 shows similarity to the STAT1-binding proteins from Nipah virus, which, similar to 018, block the association of STAT1 with an IFN receptor. Overall, these results uncover a conserved mechanism of STAT1 antagonism that is employed independently by distinct virus families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum Talbot-Cooper
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Teodors Pantelejevs
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, 80 Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1GA, UK; Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
| | - John P Shannon
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK; Viral Immunity and Pathogenesis Unit, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAD, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
| | - Christian R Cherry
- Viral Immunity and Pathogenesis Unit, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAD, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
| | - Marcus T Au
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Marko Hyvönen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, 80 Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1GA, UK
| | - Heather D Hickman
- Viral Immunity and Pathogenesis Unit, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAD, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK.
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19
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Torres AA, Macilwee SL, Rashid A, Cox SE, Albarnaz JD, Bonjardim CA, Smith GL. The actin nucleator Spir-1 is a virus restriction factor that promotes innate immune signalling. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010277. [PMID: 35148361 PMCID: PMC8870497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular proteins often have multiple and diverse functions. This is illustrated with protein Spir-1 that is an actin nucleator, but, as shown here, also functions to enhance innate immune signalling downstream of RNA sensing by RIG-I/MDA-5. In human and mouse cells lacking Spir-1, IRF3 and NF-κB-dependent gene activation is impaired, whereas Spir-1 overexpression enhanced IRF3 activation. Furthermore, the infectious virus titres and sizes of plaques formed by two viruses that are sensed by RIG-I, vaccinia virus (VACV) and Zika virus, are increased in Spir-1 KO cells. These observations demonstrate the biological importance of Spir-1 in the response to virus infection. Like cellular proteins, viral proteins also have multiple and diverse functions. Here, we also show that VACV virulence factor K7 binds directly to Spir-1 and that a diphenylalanine motif of Spir-1 is needed for this interaction and for Spir-1-mediated enhancement of IRF3 activation. Thus, Spir-1 is a new virus restriction factor and is targeted directly by an immunomodulatory viral protein that enhances virus virulence and diminishes the host antiviral responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice A. Torres
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Amir Rashid
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah E. Cox
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jonas D. Albarnaz
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Claudio A. Bonjardim
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Geoffrey L. Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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20
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Albarnaz JD, Ren H, Torres AA, Shmeleva EV, Melo CA, Bannister AJ, Brember MP, Chung BYW, Smith GL. Molecular mimicry of NF-κB by vaccinia virus protein enables selective inhibition of antiviral responses. Nat Microbiol 2022; 7:154-168. [PMID: 34949827 PMCID: PMC7614822 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-021-01004-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Infection of mammalian cells with viruses activates NF-κB to induce the expression of cytokines and chemokines and initiate an antiviral response. Here, we show that a vaccinia virus protein mimics the transactivation domain of the p65 subunit of NF-κB to inhibit selectively the expression of NF-κB-regulated genes. Using co-immunoprecipitation assays, we found that the vaccinia virus protein F14 associates with NF-κB co-activator CREB-binding protein (CBP) and disrupts the interaction between p65 and CBP. This abrogates CBP-mediated acetylation of p65, after which it reduces promoter recruitment of the transcriptional regulator BRD4 and diminishes stimulation of NF-κB-regulated genes CXCL10 and CCL2. Recruitment of BRD4 to the promoters of NFKBIA and CXCL8 remains unaffected by either F14 or JQ1 (a competitive inhibitor of BRD4 bromodomains), indicating that BRD4 recruitment is acetylation-independent. Unlike other viral proteins that are general antagonists of NF-κB, F14 is a selective inhibitor of NF-κB-dependent gene expression. An in vivo model of infection demonstrated that F14 promotes virulence. Molecular mimicry of NF-κB may be conserved because other orthopoxviruses, including variola, monkeypox and cowpox viruses, encode orthologues of F14.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas D Albarnaz
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Hongwei Ren
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, London, UK
| | - Alice A Torres
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Evgeniya V Shmeleva
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Carlos A Melo
- The Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Betty Y-W Chung
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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21
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Schoof M, Wang L, Cogan JZ, Lawrence RE, Boone M, Wuerth JD, Frost A, Walter P. Viral evasion of the integrated stress response through antagonism of eIF2-P binding to eIF2B. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7103. [PMID: 34876554 PMCID: PMC8651678 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26164-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infection triggers activation of the integrated stress response (ISR). In response to viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) phosphorylates the translation initiation factor eIF2, converting it from a translation initiator into a potent translation inhibitor and this restricts the synthesis of viral proteins. Phosphorylated eIF2 (eIF2-P) inhibits translation by binding to eIF2's dedicated, heterodecameric nucleotide exchange factor eIF2B and conformationally inactivating it. We show that the NSs protein of Sandfly Fever Sicilian virus (SFSV) allows the virus to evade the ISR. Mechanistically, NSs tightly binds to eIF2B (KD = 30 nM), blocks eIF2-P binding, and rescues eIF2B GEF activity. Cryo-EM structures demonstrate that SFSV NSs and eIF2-P directly compete, with the primary NSs contacts to eIF2Bα mediated by five 'aromatic fingers'. NSs binding preserves eIF2B activity by maintaining eIF2B's conformation in its active A-State.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schoof
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lan Wang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - J Zachery Cogan
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rosalie E Lawrence
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Morgane Boone
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Adam Frost
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Peter Walter
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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22
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Hou J, Wang S, Li D, Carpp LN, Zhang T, Liu Y, Jia M, Peng H, Liu C, Wu H, Huang Y, Shao Y. Early Pro-Inflammatory Signal and T-Cell Activation Associate With Vaccine-Induced Anti-Vaccinia Protective Neutralizing Antibodies. Front Immunol 2021; 12:737487. [PMID: 34707608 PMCID: PMC8542877 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.737487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Both vaccine “take” and neutralizing antibody (nAb) titer are historical correlates for vaccine-induced protection from smallpox. We analyzed a subset of samples from a phase 2a trial of three DNA/HIV-1 primes and a recombinant Tiantan vaccinia virus-vectored (rTV)/HIV-1 booster and found that a proportion of participants showed no anti-vaccinia nAb response to the rTV/HIV-1 booster, despite successful vaccine “take.” Using a rich transcriptomic and vaccinia-specific immunological dataset with fine kinetic sampling, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying nAb response. Blood transcription module analysis revealed the downregulation of the activator protein 1 (AP-1) pathway in responders, but not in non-responders, and the upregulation of T-cell activation in responders. Furthermore, transcriptional factor network reconstruction revealed the upregulation of AP-1 core genes at hour 4 and day 1 post-rTV/HIV-1 vaccination, followed by a downregulation from day 3 until day 28 in responders. In contrast, AP-1 core and pro-inflammatory genes were upregulated on day 7 in non-responders. We speculate that persistent pro-inflammatory signaling early post-rTV/HIV-1 vaccination inhibits the nAb response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jue Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Shuhui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Dan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Lindsay N Carpp
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Tong Zhang
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Manxue Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Chang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'an Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yunda Huang
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Yiming Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
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23
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van Diepen M, Chapman R, Douglass N, Whittle L, Chineka N, Galant S, Cotchobos C, Suzuki A, Williamson AL. Advancements in the Growth and Construction of Recombinant Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV) for Use as a Vaccine Vector. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9101131. [PMID: 34696239 PMCID: PMC8539341 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9101131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Attenuated vaccine strains of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) have become increasingly popular as recombinant vaccine vectors, to target both LSDV, as well as other pathogens, including human infectious agents. Historically, these vaccine strains and recombinants were generated in primary (lamb) testis (LT) cells, Madin–Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells or in eggs. Growth in eggs is a laborious process, the use of primary cells has the potential to introduce pathogens and MDBK cells are known to harbor bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). In this study, data is presented to show the growth of an attenuated LSDV strain in baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cells. Subsequently, a recombinant LSDV vaccine was generated in BHK-21 cells. Partial growth was also observed in rabbit kidney cells (RK13), but only when the vaccinia virus host range gene K1L was expressed. Despite the limited growth, the expression of K1L was enough to serve as a positive selection marker for the generation of recombinant LSDV vaccines in RK13 cells. The simplification of generating (recombinant) LSDV vaccines shown here should increase the interest for this platform for future livestock vaccine development and, with BHK-21 cells approved for current good manufacturing practice, this can be expanded to human vaccines as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michiel van Diepen
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Rosamund Chapman
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Nicola Douglass
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
- Correspondence: (N.D.); (A.-L.W.); Tel.: +27-832310553 (N.D.)
| | - Leah Whittle
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Nicole Chineka
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Shireen Galant
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Christian Cotchobos
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Akiko Suzuki
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Anna-Lise Williamson
- Department of Pathology, Division of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa; (M.v.D.); (R.C.); (L.W.); (N.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.); (A.S.)
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
- Correspondence: (N.D.); (A.-L.W.); Tel.: +27-832310553 (N.D.)
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24
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Sharma KB, Chhabra S, Aggarwal S, Tripathi A, Banerjee A, Yadav AK, Vrati S, Kalia M. Proteomic landscape of Japanese encephalitis virus-infected fibroblasts. J Gen Virol 2021; 102. [PMID: 34546869 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in proteomics have enabled a comprehensive understanding of host-pathogen interactions. Here we have characterized Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection-driven changes in the mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) proteome. Through tandem mass tagging (TMT)-based mass spectrometry, we describe changes in 7.85 % of the identified proteome due to JEV infection. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that proteins involved in innate immune sensing, interferon responses and inflammation were the major upregulated group, along with the immunoproteasome and poly ADP-ribosylation proteins. Functional validation of several upregulated anti-viral innate immune proteins, including an active cGAS-STING axis, was performed. Through siRNA depletion, we describe a crucial role of the DNA sensor cGAS in restricting JEV replication. Further, many interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were observed to be induced in infected cells. We also observed activation of TLR2 and inhibition of TLR2 signalling using TLR1/2 inhibitor CU-CPT22-blocked production of inflammatory cytokines IL6 and TNF-α from virus-infected N9 microglial cells. The major proteins that were downregulated by infection were involved in cell adhesion (collagens), transport (solute carrier and ATP-binding cassette transporters), sterol and lipid biosynthesis. Several collagens were found to be transcriptionally downregulated in infected MEFs and mouse brain. Collectively, our data provide a bird's-eye view into how fibroblast protein composition is rewired following JEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Bala Sharma
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India.,Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Simran Chhabra
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Suruchi Aggarwal
- Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Aarti Tripathi
- Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Arup Banerjee
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India.,Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Amit Kumar Yadav
- Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Sudhanshu Vrati
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India.,Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Manjula Kalia
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India.,Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, NCR Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
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25
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Grossegesse M, Leupold P, Doellinger J, Schaade L, Nitsche A. Inactivation of Coronaviruses during Sample Preparation for Proteomics Experiments. J Proteome Res 2021; 20:4598-4602. [PMID: 34432478 PMCID: PMC8406924 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry-based proteomics is applied in SARS-CoV-2 research and is, moreover, being discussed as a novel method for SARS-CoV-2 diagnostics. However, the safe inactivation of coronaviruses by proteomics lysis buffers has not been systematically analyzed yet. Hence, for safety reasons a heating step prior to sample preparation is often performed. This step could be omitted once the safe inactivation with the typical buffers is proven. Here we test five different proteomics lysis buffers-4% SDS, 1% SDC, TFA, 6 M GdmCl, and 8 M urea-for their inactivation capacity of coronaviruses. Two representative human coronaviruses, namely HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43, were used as surrogate for SARS-CoV-2. Lysis was performed at room temperature and at 95 °C for 5 min. Inactivation was confirmed by the absence of a cytopathic effect in MRC-5 cells, and equivocal results were further confirmed by serial passaging and quantitative real-time PCR. While at room temperature SDS, SDC, and TFA inactivated both coronaviruses, and GdmCl and urea resulted in partially incomplete inactivation. This demonstrates that care should be taken when choosing lysis buffers for proteomics analysis of coronaviruses, because some buffers do not ensure inactivation and, hence, biosafety during the further sample preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marica Grossegesse
- Robert
Koch Institute, Centre for Biological
Threats and Special Pathogens, ZBS 1: Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Seestr. 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Paula Leupold
- Robert
Koch Institute, Centre for Biological
Threats and Special Pathogens, ZBS 1: Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Seestr. 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joerg Doellinger
- Robert
Koch Institute, Centre for Biological
Threats and Special Pathogens, ZBS 1: Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Seestr. 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
- Robert
Koch Institute, Centre for Biological
Threats and Special Pathogens, ZBS 6: Proteomics and Spectroscopy, Seestr. 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lars Schaade
- Robert
Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Seestr. 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Robert
Koch Institute, Centre for Biological
Threats and Special Pathogens, ZBS 1: Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Seestr. 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany
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26
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Lant S, Maluquer de Motes C. Poxvirus Interactions with the Host Ubiquitin System. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10081034. [PMID: 34451498 PMCID: PMC8399815 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10081034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin system has emerged as a master regulator of many, if not all, cellular functions. With its large repertoire of conjugating and ligating enzymes, the ubiquitin system holds a unique mechanism to provide selectivity and specificity in manipulating protein function. As intracellular parasites viruses have evolved to modulate the cellular environment to facilitate replication and subvert antiviral responses. Poxviruses are a large family of dsDNA viruses with large coding capacity that is used to synthetise proteins and enzymes needed for replication and morphogenesis as well as suppression of host responses. This review summarises our current knowledge on how poxvirus functions rely on the cellular ubiquitin system, and how poxviruses exploit this system to their own advantage, either facilitating uncoating and genome release and replication or rewiring ubiquitin ligases to downregulate critical antiviral factors. Whilst much remains to be known about the intricate interactions established between poxviruses and the host ubiquitin system, our knowledge has revealed crucial viral processes and important restriction factors that open novel avenues for antiviral treatment and provide fundamental insights on the biology of poxviruses and other virus families.
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27
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Rahmatbakhsh M, Gagarinova A, Babu M. Bioinformatic Analysis of Temporal and Spatial Proteome Alternations During Infections. Front Genet 2021; 12:667936. [PMID: 34276775 PMCID: PMC8283032 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.667936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial pathogens have evolved numerous mechanisms to hijack host's systems, thus causing disease. This is mediated by alterations in the combined host-pathogen proteome in time and space. Mass spectrometry-based proteomics approaches have been developed and tailored to map disease progression. The result is complex multidimensional data that pose numerous analytic challenges for downstream interpretation. However, a systematic review of approaches for the downstream analysis of such data has been lacking in the field. In this review, we detail the steps of a typical temporal and spatial analysis, including data pre-processing steps (i.e., quality control, data normalization, the imputation of missing values, and dimensionality reduction), different statistical and machine learning approaches, validation, interpretation, and the extraction of biological information from mass spectrometry data. We also discuss current best practices for these steps based on a collection of independent studies to guide users in selecting the most suitable strategies for their dataset and analysis objectives. Moreover, we also compiled the list of commonly used R software packages for each step of the analysis. These could be easily integrated into one's analysis pipeline. Furthermore, we guide readers through various analysis steps by applying these workflows to mock and host-pathogen interaction data from public datasets. The workflows presented in this review will serve as an introduction for data analysis novices, while also helping established users update their data analysis pipelines. We conclude the review by discussing future directions and developments in temporal and spatial proteomics and data analysis approaches. Data analysis codes, prepared for this review are available from https://github.com/BabuLab-UofR/TempSpac, where guidelines and sample datasets are also offered for testing purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alla Gagarinova
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, & Immunology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Mohan Babu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Regina, Regina, SK, Canada
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28
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Maróti Z, Tombácz D, Prazsák I, Moldován N, Csabai Z, Torma G, Balázs Z, Kalmár T, Dénes B, Snyder M, Boldogkői Z. Time-course transcriptome analysis of host cell response to poxvirus infection using a dual long-read sequencing approach. BMC Res Notes 2021; 14:239. [PMID: 34167576 PMCID: PMC8223271 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-021-05657-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In this study, we applied two long-read sequencing (LRS) approaches, including single-molecule real-time and nanopore-based sequencing methods to investigate the time-lapse transcriptome patterns of host gene expression as a response to Vaccinia virus infection. Transcriptomes determined using short-read sequencing approaches are incomplete because these platforms are inefficient or fail to distinguish between polycistronic RNAs, transcript isoforms, transcriptional start sites, as well as transcriptional readthroughs and overlaps. Long-read sequencing is able to read full-length nucleic acids and can therefore be used to assemble complete transcriptome atlases. RESULTS In this work, we identified a number of novel transcripts and transcript isoforms of Chlorocebus sabaeus. Additionally, analysis of the most abundant 768 host transcripts revealed a significant overrepresentation of the class of genes in the "regulation of signaling receptor activity" Gene Ontology annotation as a result of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Maróti
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dóra Tombácz
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - István Prazsák
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Norbert Moldován
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsolt Csabai
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gábor Torma
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsolt Balázs
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Tibor Kalmár
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Béla Dénes
- Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate of the National Food Chain Safety Office, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Michael Snyder
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Zsolt Boldogkői
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
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29
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Abstract
The abundance, localization, modifications, and protein-protein interactions of many host cell and virus proteins can change dynamically throughout the course of any viral infection. Studying these changes is critical for a comprehensive understanding of how viruses replicate and cause disease, as well as for the development of antiviral therapeutics and vaccines. Previously, we developed a mass spectrometry-based technique called quantitative temporal viromics (QTV), which employs isobaric tandem mass tags (TMTs) to allow precise comparative quantification of host and virus proteomes through a whole time course of infection. In this review, we discuss the utility and applications of QTV, exemplified by numerous studies that have since used proteomics with a variety of quantitative techniques to study virus infection through time. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 8 is September 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael P Weekes
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, United Kingdom;
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30
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Sundaramoorthy E, Ryan AP, Fulzele A, Leonard M, Daugherty MD, Bennett EJ. Ribosome quality control activity potentiates vaccinia virus protein synthesis during infection. J Cell Sci 2021; 134:259243. [PMID: 33912921 PMCID: PMC8106952 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.257188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infection both activates stress signaling pathways and redistributes ribosomes away from host mRNAs to translate viral mRNAs. The intricacies of this ribosome shuffle from host to viral mRNAs are poorly understood. Here, we uncover a role for the ribosome-associated quality control (RQC) factor ZNF598 during vaccinia virus mRNA translation. ZNF598 acts on collided ribosomes to ubiquitylate 40S subunit proteins uS10 (RPS20) and eS10 (RPS10), initiating RQC-dependent nascent chain degradation and ribosome recycling. We show that vaccinia infection enhances uS10 ubiquitylation, indicating an increased burden on RQC pathways during viral propagation. Consistent with an increased RQC demand, we demonstrate that vaccinia virus replication is impaired in cells that either lack ZNF598 or express a ubiquitylation-deficient version of uS10. Using SILAC-based proteomics and concurrent RNA-seq analysis, we determine that translation, but not transcription of vaccinia virus mRNAs is compromised in cells with deficient RQC activity. Additionally, vaccinia virus infection reduces cellular RQC activity, suggesting that co-option of ZNF598 by vaccinia virus plays a critical role in translational reprogramming that is needed for optimal viral propagation. Summary: The ribosome-associated quality control factor ZNF598, which senses ribosome collisions, is a host factor necessary for vaccinia viral protein synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elayanambi Sundaramoorthy
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Andrew P Ryan
- Section of Molecular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Amit Fulzele
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Marilyn Leonard
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Matthew D Daugherty
- Section of Molecular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Eric J Bennett
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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31
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Lawler C, Brady G. Poxviral Targeting of Interferon Regulatory Factor Activation. Viruses 2020; 12:v12101191. [PMID: 33092186 PMCID: PMC7590177 DOI: 10.3390/v12101191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
As viruses have a capacity to rapidly evolve and continually alter the coding of their protein repertoires, host cells have evolved pathways to sense viruses through the one invariable feature common to all these pathogens-their nucleic acids. These genomic and transcriptional pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) trigger the activation of germline-encoded anti-viral pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that can distinguish viral nucleic acids from host forms by their localization and subtle differences in their chemistry. A wide range of transmembrane and cytosolic PRRs continually probe the intracellular environment for these viral PAMPs, activating pathways leading to the activation of anti-viral gene expression. The activation of Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NFκB) and Interferon (IFN) Regulatory Factor (IRF) family transcription factors are of central importance in driving pro-inflammatory and type-I interferon (TI-IFN) gene expression required to effectively restrict spread and trigger adaptive responses leading to clearance. Poxviruses evolve complex arrays of inhibitors which target these pathways at a variety of levels. This review will focus on how poxviruses target and inhibit PRR pathways leading to the activation of IRF family transcription factors.
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32
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Soh TK, Davies CTR, Muenzner J, Hunter LM, Barrow HG, Connor V, Bouton CR, Smith C, Emmott E, Antrobus R, Graham SC, Weekes MP, Crump CM. Temporal Proteomic Analysis of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Infection Reveals Cell-Surface Remodeling via pUL56-Mediated GOPC Degradation. Cell Rep 2020; 33:108235. [PMID: 33027661 PMCID: PMC7539533 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses are ubiquitous in the human population and they extensively remodel the cellular environment during infection. Multiplexed quantitative proteomic analysis over the time course of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection was used to characterize changes in the host-cell proteome and the kinetics of viral protein production. Several host-cell proteins are targeted for rapid degradation by HSV-1, including the cellular trafficking factor Golgi-associated PDZ and coiled-coil motif-containing protein (GOPC). We show that the poorly characterized HSV-1 pUL56 directly binds GOPC, stimulating its ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Plasma membrane profiling reveals that pUL56 mediates specific changes to the cell-surface proteome of infected cells, including loss of interleukin-18 (IL18) receptor and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), and that cell-surface expression of TLR2 is GOPC dependent. Our study provides significant resources for future investigation of HSV-host interactions and highlights an efficient mechanism whereby a single virus protein targets a cellular trafficking factor to modify the surface of infected cells. Multiplexed proteomic screens reveal regulation of host protein abundance by HSV-1 HSV-1 pUL56 targets host proteins such as GOPC for proteasomal degradation HSV-1-mediated degradation of GOPC remodels the plasma membrane of infected cells GOPC is important for cell-surface expression of immune receptor TLR2 in keratinocytes
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy K Soh
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Colin T R Davies
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Julia Muenzner
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Leah M Hunter
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Henry G Barrow
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Viv Connor
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Clément R Bouton
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Cameron Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Edward Emmott
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Robin Antrobus
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Stephen C Graham
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Michael P Weekes
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Colin M Crump
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK.
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33
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Vaccinia Virus as a Master of Host Shutoff Induction: Targeting Processes of the Central Dogma and Beyond. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9050400. [PMID: 32455727 PMCID: PMC7281567 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9050400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthesis of host cell proteins is adversely inhibited in many virus infections, whereas viral proteins are efficiently synthesized. This phenomenon leads to the accumulation of viral proteins concurrently with a profound decline in global host protein synthesis, a phenomenon often termed “host shutoff”. To induce host shutoff, a virus may target various steps of gene expression, as well as pre- and post-gene expression processes. During infection, vaccinia virus (VACV), the prototype poxvirus, targets all major processes of the central dogma of genetics, as well as pre-transcription and post-translation steps to hinder host cell protein production. In this article, we review the strategies used by VACV to induce host shutoff in the context of strategies employed by other viruses. We elaborate on how VACV induces host shutoff by targeting host cell DNA synthesis, RNA production and processing, mRNA translation, and protein degradation. We emphasize the topics on VACV’s approaches toward modulating mRNA processing, stability, and translation during infection. Finally, we propose avenues for future investigations, which will facilitate our understanding of poxvirus biology, as well as fundamental cellular gene expression and regulation mechanisms.
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34
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Neidel S, Torres AA, Ren H, Smith GL. Leaky scanning translation generates a second A49 protein that contributes to vaccinia virus virulence. J Gen Virol 2020; 101:533-541. [PMID: 32100702 PMCID: PMC7414448 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus (VACV) strain Western Reserve gene A49L encodes a small intracellular protein with a Bcl-2 fold that is expressed early during infection and has multiple functions. A49 co-precipitates with the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP and thereby prevents ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation of IκBα, and consequently blocks activation of NF-κB. In a similar way, A49 stabilizes β-catenin, leading to activation of the wnt signalling pathway. However, a VACV strain expressing a mutant A49 that neither co-precipitates with β-TrCP nor inhibits NF-κB activation, is more virulent than a virus lacking A49, indicating that A49 has another function that also contributes to virulence. Here we demonstrate that gene A49L encodes a second, smaller polypeptide that is expressed via leaky scanning translation from methionine 20 and is unable to block NF-κB activation. Viruses engineered to express either only the large protein or only the small A49 protein both have lower virulence than wild-type virus and greater virulence than an A49L deletion mutant. This demonstrates that the small protein contributes to virulence by an unknown mechanism that is independent of NF-κB inhibition. Despite having a large genome with about 200 genes, this study illustrates how VACV makes efficient use of its coding potential and from gene A49L expresses a protein with multiple functions and multiple proteins with different functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Neidel
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Alice A. Torres
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Hongwei Ren
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
- Present address: Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Geoffrey L. Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QP, UK
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35
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Comprehensive cell surface proteomics defines markers of classical, intermediate and non-classical monocytes. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4560. [PMID: 32165698 PMCID: PMC7067879 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61356-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytes are a critical component of the cellular innate immune system, and can be subdivided into classical, intermediate and non-classical subsets on the basis of surface CD14 and CD16 expression. Classical monocytes play the canonical role of phagocytosis, and account for the majority of circulating cells. Intermediate and non-classical cells are known to exhibit varying levels of phagocytosis and cytokine secretion, and are differentially expanded in certain pathological states. Characterisation of cell surface proteins expressed by each subset is informative not only to improve understanding of phenotype, but may also provide biological insights into function. Here we use highly multiplexed Tandem-Mass-Tag (TMT)-based mass spectrometry with selective cell surface biotinylation to characterise the classical monocyte surface proteome, then interrogate the phenotypic differences between each monocyte subset to identify novel protein markers.
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36
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Ouwendijk WJD, Dekker LJM, van den Ham HJ, Lenac Rovis T, Haefner ES, Jonjic S, Haas J, Luider TM, Verjans GMGM. Analysis of Virus and Host Proteomes During Productive HSV-1 and VZV Infection in Human Epithelial Cells. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1179. [PMID: 32547533 PMCID: PMC7273502 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV) are two closely related human alphaherpesviruses that persistently infect most adults worldwide and cause a variety of clinically important diseases. Herpesviruses are extremely well adapted to their hosts and interact broadly with cellular proteins to regulate virus replication and spread. However, it is incompletely understood how HSV-1 and VZV interact with the host proteome during productive infection. This study determined the temporal changes in virus and host protein expression during productive HSV-1 and VZV infection in the same cell type. Results demonstrated the temporally coordinated expression of HSV-1 and VZV proteins in infected cells. Analysis of the host proteomes showed that both viruses affected extracellular matrix composition, transcription, RNA processing and cell division. Moreover, the prominent role of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling during productive HSV-1 and VZV infection was identified. Stimulation and inhibition of EGFR leads to increased and decreased virus replication, respectively. Collectively, the comparative temporal analysis of viral and host proteomes in productively HSV-1 and VZV-infected cells provides a valuable resource for future studies aimed to identify target(s) for antiviral therapy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner J. D. Ouwendijk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Werner J. D. Ouwendijk,
| | | | - Henk-Jan van den Ham
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Enpicom B.V., ‘s-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands
| | - Tihana Lenac Rovis
- Center for Proteomics and Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Erik S. Haefner
- Experimental and Translational Oncology, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Center for Proteomics and Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jürgen Haas
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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37
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Liu R, Olano LR, Mirzakhanyan Y, Gershon PD, Moss B. Vaccinia Virus Ankyrin-Repeat/F-Box Protein Targets Interferon-Induced IFITs for Proteasomal Degradation. Cell Rep 2019; 29:816-828.e6. [PMID: 31644906 PMCID: PMC6876622 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
IFITs are interferon-induced proteins that can bind 5'-triphosphate or ribose-unmethylated capped ends of mRNA to inhibit translation. Although some viruses avoid IFITs by synthesizing RNAs with eukaryotic-like caps, no viral proteins were known to antagonize IFITs. We show that the N- and C-terminal portions of C9, a protein required for vaccinia virus to resist the human type I interferon-induced state, bind IFITs and ubiquitin regulatory complexes, respectively. Together, the two C9 domains target IFITs for proteasomal degradation, thereby providing interferon resistance similar to that also achieved by knockout of IFITs. Furthermore, ectopic expression of C9 rescues the interferon sensitivity of a vaccinia virus mutant with an inactivated cap 1-specific ribose-methyltransferase that is otherwise unable to express early proteins. In contrast, the C9-deletion mutant expresses early proteins but is blocked by IFITs at the subsequent genome uncoating/replication step. Thus, poxviruses use mRNA cap methylation and proteosomal degradation to defeat multiple antiviral activities of IFITs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruikang Liu
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Lisa R Olano
- Research Technologies Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - Yeva Mirzakhanyan
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, UC-Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Paul D Gershon
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, UC-Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Bernard Moss
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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