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Stegen S, Carmeliet G. Metabolic regulation of skeletal cell fate and function. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2024; 20:399-413. [PMID: 38499689 DOI: 10.1038/s41574-024-00969-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Bone development and bone remodelling during adult life are highly anabolic processes requiring an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients. Bone-forming osteoblasts and bone-resorbing osteoclasts interact closely to preserve bone mass and architecture and are often located close to blood vessels. Chondrocytes within the developing growth plate ensure that bone lengthening occurs before puberty, but these cells function in an avascular environment. With ageing, numerous bone marrow adipocytes appear, often with negative effects on bone properties. Many studies have now indicated that skeletal cells have specific metabolic profiles that correspond to the nutritional microenvironment and their stage-specific functions. These metabolic networks provide not only skeletal cells with sufficient energy, but also biosynthetic intermediates that are necessary for proliferation and extracellular matrix synthesis. Moreover, these metabolic pathways control redox homeostasis to avoid oxidative stress and safeguard cell survival. Finally, several intracellular metabolites regulate the activity of epigenetic enzymes and thus control the fate and function of skeletal cells. The metabolic profile of skeletal cells therefore not only reflects their cellular state, but can also drive cellular activity. Insight into skeletal cell metabolism will thus not only advance our understanding of skeletal development and homeostasis, but also of skeletal disorders, such as osteoarthritis, diabetic bone disease and bone malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Stegen
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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Lian WS, Wu RW, Lin YH, Chen YS, Jahr H, Wang FS. Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Regulation of Metabolic Program, Redox System, and Epigenetic Remodeling for Bone Health and Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:470. [PMID: 38671918 PMCID: PMC11047415 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13040470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Imbalanced osteogenic cell-mediated bone gain and osteoclastic remodeling accelerates the development of osteoporosis, which is the leading risk factor of disability in the elderly. Harmonizing the metabolic actions of bone-making cells and bone resorbing cells to the mineralized matrix network is required to maintain bone mass homeostasis. The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in mitochondria is a crucial process for cellular energy production and redox homeostasis. The canonical actions of TCA cycle enzymes and intermediates are indispensable in oxidative phosphorylation and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) biosynthesis for osteogenic differentiation and osteoclast formation. Knockout mouse models identify these enzymes' roles in bone mass and microarchitecture. In the noncanonical processes, the metabolites as a co-factor or a substrate involve epigenetic modification, including histone acetyltransferases, DNA demethylases, RNA m6A demethylases, and histone demethylases, which affect genomic stability or chromatin accessibility for cell metabolism and bone formation and resorption. The genetic manipulation of these epigenetic regulators or TCA cycle intermediate supplementation compromises age, estrogen deficiency, or inflammation-induced bone mass loss and microstructure deterioration. This review sheds light on the metabolic functions of the TCA cycle in terms of bone integrity and highlights the crosstalk of the TCA cycle and redox and epigenetic pathways in skeletal tissue metabolism and the intermediates as treatment options for delaying osteoporosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Shiung Lian
- Core Laboratory for Phenomics and Diagnostic, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan; (W.-S.L.); (Y.-S.C.)
- Center for Mitochondrial Research and Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan;
- Department of Medical Research, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan
| | - Re-Wen Wu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan;
| | - Yu-Han Lin
- Center for Mitochondrial Research and Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan;
| | - Yu-Shan Chen
- Core Laboratory for Phenomics and Diagnostic, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan; (W.-S.L.); (Y.-S.C.)
- Department of Medical Research, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan
| | - Holger Jahr
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Hospital RWTH, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Feng-Sheng Wang
- Core Laboratory for Phenomics and Diagnostic, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan; (W.-S.L.); (Y.-S.C.)
- Center for Mitochondrial Research and Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan;
- Department of Medical Research, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833401, Taiwan
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Loopmans S, Tournaire G, Stockmans I, Stegen S, Carmeliet G. Hypoxia rewires glucose and glutamine metabolism in different sources of skeletal stem and progenitor cells similarly, except for pyruvate. J Bone Miner Res 2024; 39:150-160. [PMID: 38477776 DOI: 10.1093/jbmr/zjad016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Skeletal stem and progenitor cells (SSPCs) are crucial for bone development, homeostasis, and repair. SSPCs are considered to reside in a rather hypoxic niche in the bone, but distinct SSPC niches have been described in different skeletal regions, and they likely differ in oxygen and nutrient availability. Currently it remains unknown whether the different SSPC sources have a comparable metabolic profile and respond in a similar manner to hypoxia. In this study, we show that cell proliferation of all SSPCs was increased in hypoxia, suggesting that SSPCs can indeed function in a hypoxic niche in vivo. In addition, low oxygen tension increased glucose consumption and lactate production, but affected pyruvate metabolism cell-specifically. Hypoxia decreased tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle anaplerosis and altered glucose entry into the TCA cycle from pyruvate dehydrogenase to pyruvate carboxylase and/or malic enzyme. Finally, a switch from glutamine oxidation to reductive carboxylation was observed in hypoxia, as well as cell-specific adaptations in the metabolism of other amino acids. Collectively, our findings show that SSPCs from different skeletal locations proliferate adequately in hypoxia by rewiring glucose and amino acid metabolism in a cell-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauni Loopmans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Guillaume Tournaire
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Ingrid Stockmans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Steve Stegen
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
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Davidsen K, Marvin JS, Aggarwal A, Brown TA, Sullivan LB. An engineered biosensor enables dynamic aspartate measurements in living cells. eLife 2024; 12:RP90024. [PMID: 38393319 PMCID: PMC10942590 DOI: 10.7554/elife.90024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Intracellular levels of the amino acid aspartate are responsive to changes in metabolism in mammalian cells and can correspondingly alter cell function, highlighting the need for robust tools to measure aspartate abundance. However, comprehensive understanding of aspartate metabolism has been limited by the throughput, cost, and static nature of the mass spectrometry (MS)-based measurements that are typically employed to measure aspartate levels. To address these issues, we have developed a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based sensor of aspartate (jAspSnFR3), where the fluorescence intensity corresponds to aspartate concentration. As a purified protein, the sensor has a 20-fold increase in fluorescence upon aspartate saturation, with dose-dependent fluorescence changes covering a physiologically relevant aspartate concentration range and no significant off target binding. Expressed in mammalian cell lines, sensor intensity correlated with aspartate levels measured by MS and could resolve temporal changes in intracellular aspartate from genetic, pharmacological, and nutritional manipulations. These data demonstrate the utility of jAspSnFR3 and highlight the opportunities it provides for temporally resolved and high-throughput applications of variables that affect aspartate levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Davidsen
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer CenterSeattleUnited States
- Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of WashingtonSeattleUnited States
| | - Jonathan S Marvin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Janelia Research CampusAshburnUnited States
| | - Abhi Aggarwal
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Janelia Research CampusAshburnUnited States
| | - Timothy A Brown
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Janelia Research CampusAshburnUnited States
| | - Lucas B Sullivan
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer CenterSeattleUnited States
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Stegen S, Moermans K, Stockmans I, Thienpont B, Carmeliet G. The serine synthesis pathway drives osteoclast differentiation through epigenetic regulation of NFATc1 expression. Nat Metab 2024; 6:141-152. [PMID: 38200114 PMCID: PMC10822776 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-023-00948-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Bone-resorbing osteoclasts are vital for postnatal bone health, as increased differentiation or activity results in skeletal pathologies such as osteoporosis. The metabolism of mature osteoclasts differs from their progenitor cells, but whether the observed metabolic changes are secondary to the altered cell state or actively drive the process of cell differentiation is unknown. Here, we show that transient activation of the serine synthesis pathway (SSP) is essential for osteoclastogenesis, as deletion of the rate-limiting enzyme phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase in osteoclast progenitors impairs their differentiation and results in increased bone mass. In addition, pharmacological phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase inhibition abrogated bone loss in a mouse model of postmenopausal osteoporosis by blocking bone resorption. Mechanistically, SSP-derived α-ketoglutarate is necessary for histone demethylases that remove repressive histone methylation marks at the nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 1 (Nfatc1) gene locus, thereby inducing NFATc1 expression and consequent osteoclast maturation. Taken together, this study reveals a metabolic-epigenetic coupling mechanism that directs osteoclast differentiation and suggests that the SSP can be therapeutically targeted to prevent osteoporotic bone loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Stegen
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Karen Moermans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ingrid Stockmans
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bernard Thienpont
- Laboratory of Functional Epigenetics, Department of Human Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Geert Carmeliet
- Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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Dong Z, Hou X, Wang X, Shen Z, Pang H, Chen L, Yin Z, Ren F, Li W, Ge Y, Ning H, Hu D. Proteomic Analysis of the Mitochondrial Responses in P19 Embryonic Stem Cells Exposed to Florfenicol. TOXICS 2023; 11:992. [PMID: 38133393 PMCID: PMC10747307 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11120992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Florfenicol (FLO) has been shown to elicit diverse toxic effects in plants, insects, and mammals. Previously, our investigations revealed that FLO induced abnormal cardiac development and early embryonic mortality in chicken embryos. However, the effect of FLO on mitochondrial responses in stem cells remains unclear. In this study, we show that FLO significantly diminishes proliferation viability and obstructs the directed differentiation of P19 stem cells (P19SCs) into cardiomyocytes. Proteomic analysis revealed 148 differentially expressed proteins in response to FLO. Functional analysis has pinpointed FLO interference with biological processes associated with oxidative phosphorylation within the mitochondria. In alignment with the results of proteomic analysis, we confirmed that FLO inhibits the expression of both nuclear DNA-encoded and mitochondrial DNA-encoded subunits of the electron transport chain. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that FLO disrupts mitochondrial dynamics and induces the mitochondrial unfolded protein response to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis. These findings collectively highlight the significance of mitochondrial dynamics and the mitochondrial unfolded protein response to mediate the decreased proliferation viability and directed differentiation potential in P19SCs treated with FLO. In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive overview of mitochondrial responses to FLO-induced cytotoxicity and enhances our understandings of the molecular mechanisms underlying FLO-induced embryonic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihua Dong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Xueke Hou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Xueying Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Zihui Shen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Huiqing Pang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Lingli Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Zhihong Yin
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Fei Ren
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Weiguo Li
- Postdoctoral Research Station in Biological Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453003, China;
| | - Yaming Ge
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Hongmei Ning
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
| | - Dongfang Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China; (Z.D.); (X.H.); (X.W.); (Z.S.); (H.P.); (L.C.); (Z.Y.); (F.R.); (Y.G.)
- Postdoctoral Research Station in Biological Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453003, China;
- Postdoctoral Research and Development Base, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang 453003, China
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Davidsen K, Marvin JS, Aggarwal A, Brown TA, Sullivan LB. An engineered biosensor enables dynamic aspartate measurements in living cells. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.27.546775. [PMID: 37425831 PMCID: PMC10327124 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.27.546775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular levels of the amino acid aspartate are responsive to changes in metabolism in mammalian cells and can correspondingly alter cell function, highlighting the need for robust tools to measure aspartate abundance. However, comprehensive understanding of aspartate metabolism has been limited by the throughput, cost, and static nature of the mass spectrometry based measurements that are typically employed to measure aspartate levels. To address these issues, we have developed a GFP-based sensor of aspartate (jAspSnFR3), where the fluorescence intensity corresponds to aspartate concentration. As a purified protein, the sensor has a 20-fold increase in fluorescence upon aspartate saturation, with dose dependent fluorescence changes covering a physiologically relevant aspartate concentration range and no significant off target binding. Expressed in mammalian cell lines, sensor intensity correlated with aspartate levels measured by mass spectrometry and could resolve temporal changes in intracellular aspartate from genetic, pharmacological, and nutritional manipulations. These data demonstrate the utility of jAspSnFR3 and highlight the opportunities it provides for temporally resolved and high throughput applications of variables that affect aspartate levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Davidsen
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
- Molecular and cellular biology program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jonathan S Marvin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Abhi Aggarwal
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Timothy A Brown
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Lucas B Sullivan
- Human Biology Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
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Sabini E, Arboit L, Khan MP, Lanzolla G, Schipani E. Oxidative phosphorylation in bone cells. Bone Rep 2023; 18:101688. [PMID: 37275785 PMCID: PMC10238578 DOI: 10.1016/j.bonr.2023.101688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of energy metabolism in bone cells is an active field of investigation. Bone cells are metabolically very active and require high levels of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to support their function. ATP is generated in the cytosol via glycolysis coupled with lactic acid fermentation and in the mitochondria via oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). OXPHOS is the final convergent metabolic pathway for all oxidative steps of dietary nutrients catabolism. The formation of ATP is driven by an electrochemical gradient that forms across the mitochondrial inner membrane through to the activity of the electron transport chain (ETC) complexes and requires the presence of oxygen as the final electron acceptor. The current literature supports a model in which glycolysis is the main source of energy in undifferentiated mesenchymal progenitors and terminally differentiated osteoblasts, whereas OXPHOS appears relevant in an intermediate stage of differentiation of those cells. Conversely, osteoclasts progressively increase OXPHOS during differentiation until they become multinucleated and mitochondrial-rich terminal differentiated cells. Despite the abundance of mitochondria, mature osteoclasts are considered ATP-depleted, and the availability of ATP is a critical factor that regulates the low survival capacity of these cells, which rapidly undergo death by apoptosis. In addition to ATP, bioenergetic metabolism generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intermediate metabolites that regulate a variety of cellular functions, including epigenetics changes of genomic DNA and histones. This review will briefly discuss the role of OXPHOS and the cross-talks OXPHOS-glycolysis in the differentiation process of bone cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ernestina Schipani
- Corresponding author at: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman Medical School, 310A Stemmler Hall, 3450 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Loverdou N, Cuvelier M, Nilsson Hall G, Christiaens A, Decoene I, Bernaerts K, Smeets B, Ramon H, Luyten FP, Geris L, Papantoniou I. Stirred culture of cartilaginous microtissues promotes chondrogenic hypertrophy through exposure to intermittent shear stress. Bioeng Transl Med 2022; 8:e10468. [DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Niki Loverdou
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Biomechanics Research Unit GIGA‐R In Silico Medicine, Université de Liege, Avenue de l'Hôpital 11—BAT 34 Liège 1 Belgium
- Biomechanics Section, KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan Leuven Belgium
| | - Maxim Cuvelier
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Biosystems Department MeBioS, KU Leuven Kasteelpark Arenberg Leuven Belgium
| | - Gabriella Nilsson Hall
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
| | - An‐Sofie Christiaens
- Department of Chemical Engineering KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan Leuven Belgium
- Leuven Chem&Tech Celestijnenlaan Leuven Belgium
| | - Isaak Decoene
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
| | - Kristel Bernaerts
- Department of Chemical Engineering KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan Leuven Belgium
- Leuven Chem&Tech Celestijnenlaan Leuven Belgium
| | - Bart Smeets
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Biosystems Department MeBioS, KU Leuven Kasteelpark Arenberg Leuven Belgium
| | - Herman Ramon
- Biosystems Department MeBioS, KU Leuven Kasteelpark Arenberg Leuven Belgium
| | - Frank P. Luyten
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
| | - Liesbet Geris
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Biomechanics Research Unit GIGA‐R In Silico Medicine, Université de Liege, Avenue de l'Hôpital 11—BAT 34 Liège 1 Belgium
- Biomechanics Section, KU Leuven Celestijnenlaan Leuven Belgium
| | - Ioannis Papantoniou
- Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Skeletal Biology & Engineering Research Centre, Department of Development & Regeneration KU Leuven Leuven Herestraat Belgium
- Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research and Technology‐Hellas (FORTH) Stadiou St, Platani Patras Greece
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