Effect of renal impairment on mortality of patients with cirrhosis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

Incidence and risk factors of acute kidney injury in cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5,202,232 outpatients, inpatients, and ICU-admitted patients

INTRODUCTION

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a commonly seen condition in the natural course of cirrhosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pooled incidence and risk factors of AKI in different clinical stages and situations in patients with cirrhosis.

METHODS

Search was conducted on 13 December 2023 across MEDLINE (PubMed), Embase, and Cochrane databases. Meta-analysis was performed using a generalized linear mixed model.

RESULTS

In total, 73 studies with 5,202,232 patients were finally enrolled in the meta-analysis. AKI commonly occurs among hospitalized cirrhotics experiencing any decompensation event (29%) as well as among stable outpatients (28%) throughout a 1-year follow-up period. On admission, patients with infection or sepsis/septic shock had the highest AKI rate (47%), followed by those with hepatic encephalopathy (41%). Furthermore, the severity of liver disease proved to be a substantial driver for AKI development, while patients at intensive care unit had the greatest AKI incidence (61%).

CONCLUSIONS

Both hospitalized patients and stable outpatients with cirrhosis exhibited an elevated susceptibility to AKI. Patients at intensive care unit and those with severe liver disease, infection, sepsis/septic shock, hepatic encephalopathy, or acute on chronic liver failure upon admission are at higher risk for AKI.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO, registered 09/12/23, CRD42023487736.

Impact of acute kidney injury on the risk of mortality in patients with cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To compare the risk of mortality in patients with cirrhosis with and without the associated acute kidney injury (AKI).

Methods

We performed a systematic search in the PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases for observational studies that were done on patients with cirrhosis. Eligible studies reported AKI in patients with cirrhosis and compared mortality among patients with and without AKI. We used a random-effects model, using STATA version 16.0, for deriving pooled effect sizes that were reported as odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

Thirty-two studies were included. In patients with cirrhosis, AKI was significantly associated with higher in-hospital mortality (OR 5.92), and mortality at 30 days (OR 4.78), 90 days (OR 4.34), and at 1 year follow-up (OR 4.82) compared to patients without AKI.

Conclusions

AKI is associated with an increased risk of mortality in patients with cirrhosis. Careful monitoring to identify the development of AKI and early prompt management is necessary.

Impact of Readmission for Variceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: A Nationwide Analysis

BACKGROUND

Variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (VUGIB) is a common and potentially lethal complication of cirrhosis. Population-based data regarding hospital readmission and other outcomes in VUGIB are limited.

AIM

In a large United States database of patients with VUGIB, we evaluated readmission rates, mortality rates, healthcare resource consumption, and identified predictors of readmission.

METHODS

The 2017 Nationwide Readmission Database using ICD-10 codes was used to identify all adult patients admitted for VUGIB. Primary outcomes were 30- and 90-day readmission rates. Secondary outcomes included mortality, healthcare resource consumption, and predictors of readmission. Multivariate regression analysis was used to adjust for potential confounders.

RESULTS

In 2017, there were 26,498 patients with VUGIB discharged from their index hospitalization, and 24.7% were readmitted (all-cause) within 30-days and 41.5% within 90-days. Recurrent VUGIB accounted for 26.7% and 28.9% of 30- and 90-day readmissions, respectively. Compared to index admissions, 30-day readmissions were associated with higher mortality (4.3% vs. 6.4%, p < 0.01), increased mean hospital length of stay (5.6 days vs. 4.5 days, p < 0.01), and charges ($65,984 vs. $53,784, p < 0.01), with similar findings in 90-day readmissions. Factors associated with 30-day readmission included end-stage renal disease (HR 1.2, p < 0.05), chronic kidney disease (HR 1.31, p < 0.01), and acute kidney injury (HR 1.14, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Based on a nationwide cohort of hospitalized VUGIB patients, 25% were readmitted within 30-days and 42% within 90-days. Readmission was associated with increased mortality and healthcare consumption compared to the index admission. Additionally, acute and chronic renal injury were predictors of patients at high-risk for readmission.

Incidence, Mortality and Predictors of Acute Kidney Injury in Patients with Cirrhosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background and Aims: Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common in patients with cirrhosis but the incidence is heterogeneous among studies. We performed a meta-analysis to describe the incidence of AKI and its impact on patient mortality in patients with cirrhosis. We also evaluated the admission variables predicting development of AKI. Methods: A systematic search of various databases was performed up to November 2018. Meta-analyses were performed using random effects models. Results: Of 18,474 patients with cirrhosis from 30 selected studies, 5,648 developed AKI, with a pooled incidence of 29% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 28-30%, I ² of 99%). In-hospital mortality assessed in eight studies was six-fold higher among AKI patients, as compared to those without AKI (odds ratio [OR] 6.72, 95% CI: 3.47-13, p<0.0001, I ² of 70%). Three studies on patients admitted to intensive care showed about six-fold higher mortality among AKI patients (OR 5.90, 95% CI: 3.21-10.85, p>0.0001). Mortality remained significantly high, at days 30 and 90 and even at 1-year follow up after development of AKI. Of 12 admission variables analyzed, model for end-stage liver disease score, Child-Pugh-Turcotte stage C, presence of ascites, and presence of sepsis/septic shock were statistically significant risk factors for AKI. Conclusions: AKI occurred in about 29% of patients with cirrhosis and is associated with a six-fold increased risk of in-hospital mortality. Mortality remained high even in long-term follow-up of 1 year. Patients at risk for AKI development can be recognized at admission. Prospective studies are needed to develop strategies for improving outcome of these patients.

Effects of poor hepatic reserve in cirrhotic patients with bacterial infections: A population-based study

Objective:

Ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, hepatorenal syndrome, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and esophageal variceal bleeding are major complications associated with cirrhosis. The presence of these complications indicates poor hepatic reserve. This study aimed to identify the effects of poor hepatic reserve on mortality in cirrhotic patients with bacterial infections.

Patients and Methods:

The Taiwan National Health Insurance Database was used to identify 43,042 cirrhotic patients with bacterial infections hospitalized between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2013, after propensity score matching analysis. Of these, 21,521 cirrhotic patients had major cirrhotic-related complications and were considered to have poor hepatic reserve.

Results:

Mortality rates at 30 and 90 days were 24.2% and 39.5% in the poor hepatic reserve group and 12.8% and 21.7% in the good hepatic reserve group, respectively (P < 0.001 for each group). The cirrhotic patients with poor hepatic reserve (hazard ratio [HR], 2.10; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.03–2.18; P < 0.001) had significantly increased mortality at 90 days. The mortality HRs in patients with one, two, and three or more complications compared to patients without complications were 1.92 (95% CI = 1.85–1.99, P < 0.001), 2.61 (95% CI = 2.47–2.77, P < 0.001), and 3.81 (95% CI = 3.18–4.57, P < 0.001), respectively.

Conclusion:

In cirrhotic patients with bacterial infections, poor hepatic reserve is associated with a poor prognosis. The presence of three or more cirrhotic-related complications increases mortality almost four folds.

Patients with cirrhosis and SBP: Increase in multidrug-resistant organisms and complications

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is a serious complication in patients with liver cirrhosis. In recent years, it has been postulated that the rate of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs) is increasing, especially in nosocomial SBP patients. Aim of the present work was to investigate this hypothesis and its possible clinical consequences.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred and three culture-positive patients between 2007 and 2014 were compared with 81 patients between 2015 and 2017, to study the change of microbiological profiles and their clinical consequences. The cirrhosis patients with bacterascites requiring treatment were included as well.

RESULTS

The most prevalent Gram-negative bacteria isolated from ascites were Enterobacterales (31.6%) and in Gram-positive pathogens Staphylococci (22.8%). There was a significant increase in MDROs (22.3% ICU 40.7%, P = .048), accompanied by an increased incidence of sepsis (from 21.4% to 37.0%, P = .021), hepatorenal syndrome (from 40.8% to 58.0%, P = .007) and the need of catecholamine therapy (from 21.4% to 38.8%, P = .036). Nosocomial origin correlated with higher MDRO proportion, more complications and lower antimicrobial susceptibility rates in 12 commonly used antibiotics. MDROs were confirmed as an isolated predictor for inpatient mortality and complications in multivariable logistic regression.

CONCLUSIONS

The feeling in clinical practice that MDROs have increased in the last 11 years could be confirmed in our study in Munich, Germany. Nosocomial SBP correlated with significantly higher MDRO rates (nearly 50%) and complication rates. In our opinion, an antibiotic combination with comprehensive effect should be taken into account in nosocomial SBP patients in this region.

Statin use in cirrhotic patients with infectious diseases: A population-based study

Background

Recent studies have shown benefits of statins in patients with liver cirrhosis. However, it is still unknown if statins have a beneficial effect on the mortality of cirrhotic patients with bacterial infections.

Methods

The Taiwan National Health Insurance Database was searched, and 816 cirrhotic patients receiving statins with bacterial infections hospitalized between January 1, 2010 and December 31, 2013 were included in the study. A one-to-four propensity score matching was performed to select a comparison group based on age, sex, and comorbid disorders.

Results

The overall 30-day mortalities in statin and non-statin group were 5.3% and 9.8%, respectively (P = 0.001). After Cox regression modeling adjusting for age, sex, and comorbid disorders, the hazard ratio (HR) of statin use on 30-day mortality was 0.52 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.38–0.72, P<0.001). In subgroup analysis, the 30-day mortality effect of statin use was more pronounced in patients with pneumonia (HR = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.19–0.59; P<0.001) and bacteremia (HR = 0.55; 95% CI: 0.35–0.85; P = 0.008). Atovastatin (HR = 0.59; 95% CI: 0.37–0.93) and rosuvastatin (HR = 0.59; 95% CI: 0.36–0.98) were associated with a decreased 30-day mortality risk compared to patients not taking statins.

Conclusions

Statin use decreases the 30-day mortality of cirrhotic patients with bacteremia and pneumonia.

Effect of Proton Pump Inhibitors on Mortality in Patients with Cirrhosis and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis

INTRODUCTION AND AIM

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is a life-threatening infection in patients with cirrhosis. However, it is unknown whether patients with SBP and cirrhosis who do not have active gastrointestinal bleeding have a poorer prognosis if treated with proton pump inhibitors (PPI).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We used the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database to identify 858 patients with SBP and cirrhosis who were administered PPIs and hospitalized between January 1, 2010, and December 31, 2013. One-to-two propensity score matching was performed to select a comparison group based on age, gender, and comorbidities. All patients obtained follow-up for 1 year.

RESULTS

The overall 30-day, 90-day, and 1-year mortality was 27.9%, 49.0%, and 73.7%, respectively, in the PPI group and 25.6%, 43.8%, and 67.2%, respectively, in the non-PPI group. After adjusting the Cox regression model for age, gender, and comorbidities, the hazard ratios for PPIs regarding 30-day, 30- to 90-day, and 90-day to 1-year mortality were 1.074 (95% CI 0.917-1.257, P = 0.377), 1.390 (95% CI 1.154-1.673, P = 0.001), and 1.297 (95% CI 1.099- 1.531, P = 0.002), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

PPIs did not increase the short-term mortality of patients with SBP and cirrosis who did not have active gastrointestinal bleeding, but PPIs increased the long-term mortality risk. For these patients, physicians should discontinue PPIs as early as possible.

Clinical and bacteriological features and prognosis of ascitic fluid infection in Chinese patients with cirrhosis

Background

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) and bacterascites (BA) represent frequent and serious complications in cirrhosis patients with ascites. However, few detailed data are available regarding the clinical and bacteriological feature of SBP or BA patients in China.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed bacteriological and clinical characteristics of patients with SBP and BA at Beijing 302 Hospital in China from January 2012 to December 2015.

Results

A total of 600 patients with SBP (n = 408) or BA (n = 192) were enrolled. Patients with BA appeared to have a less severe clinical manifestation and lower mortality rate than patients with SBP. Gram-negative bacteria formed the majority of pathogens in SBP (73.9%) and BA (55.8%) cases. Higher ascitic fluid polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN) count and hepatocellular carcinoma were independent risk factors for BA episode progressing to SBP. The concentration of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) was independent risk factor for 30-day mortality of BA patients. For patients with SBP, the independent risk factors for 30-day mortality were age, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score, septic shock and hepatocellular carcinoma. Patients with third-generation cephalosporin or carbapenems resistant infection had a significantly lower survival probability. There were significant differences in clinical characteristics and outcome among the major bacteria. Multivariate analysis showed that patients infected with Klebsiella spp. had higher hazard ratio of 30-day mortality.

Conclusion

Our study reported the bacteriological and clinical characteristics of patients with SBP and BA. Higher ascitic fluid PMN count and hepatocellular carcinoma were found to be independent risk factors for BA episode progressed to SBP. Outcome of ascitic fluid infection in patients with cirrhosis was influenced by the type of bacteria and antimicrobial susceptibility.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12879-018-3101-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The long-term outcomes of cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion

BACKGROUND/AIM

A pleural effusion is an abnormal collection of fluid in the pleural space and may cause related morbidity or mortality in cirrhotic patients. Currently, there are insufficient data to support the long-term prognosis for cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion. In this study, we investigated the short- and long-term effects of pleural effusion on mortality in cirrhotic patients and evaluated the benefit of liver transplantation in these patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, was used to identify 3,487 cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion requiring drainage between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2010. The proportional hazards Cox regression model was used to control for possible confounding factors.

RESULTS

The 30-day, 90-day, 1-year, and 3-year mortalities were 20.1%, 40.2%, 59.1%, and 75.9%, respectively, in the cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion. After Cox proportional hazard regression analysis adjusted by patient gender, age, complications of cirrhosis and comorbid disorders, old age, esophageal variceal bleeding, hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatic encephalopathy, pneumonia, renal function impairment, and without liver transplantation conferred higher risks for 3-year mortality in the cirrhotic patients with pleura effusion. Liver transplantation is the most important factor to determine the 3-year mortalities (HR: 0.17, 95% CI 0.11- 0.26, P < 0.001). The 30-day, 30 to 90-day, 90-day to 1-year, and 1 to 3-year mortalities were 5.7%, 13.4%, 20.4%, and 21.7% respectively, in the liver transplantation group, and 20.5%, 41.0%, 61.2%, and 77.5%, respectively, in the non-liver transplantation group.

CONCLUSION

In cirrhotic patients, the presence of pleural effusion predicts poor long-term outcomes. Liver transplantation could dramatically improve the survival and should be suggested as soon as possible.

The Effect of the First Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis Event on the Mortality of Cirrhotic Patients with Ascites: A Nationwide Population-Based Study in Taiwan

Background/Aims

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) contributes to poorer short-term mortality in cirrhotic patients with ascites. However, it is unknown how long the effect of the first SBP event persists in these patients.

Methods

The National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, was used to identify and enroll 7,892 cirrhotic patients with ascites who were hospitalized between January 1 and December 31, 2007. All patients were free from episodes of SBP from 1996 to 2006.

Results

The study included 1,176 patients with SBP. The overall 30-day, 90-day, 1-year, and 3-year mortality rates in this group were 21.8%, 38.9%, 57.5%, and 73.4%, respectively. The overall 30-day, 90-day, 1-year, and 3-year mortality rates in the non-SBP group were 15.7%, 32.5%, 53.3%, and 72.5%, respectively. After adjusting for gender, age, and other medical comorbidities, the adjusted hazard ratios of SBP for 30-day, 30- to 90-day, 90-day to 1-year, and 1- to 3-year mortality were 1.49 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.30 to 1.71), 1.19 (95% CI, 1.02 to 1.38), 1.04 (95% CI, 0.90 to 1.20), and 0.90 (95% CI, 0.77 to 1.05), respectively, compared with the non-SBP group.

Conclusions

The effect of SBP on the mortality of cirrhotic patients with ascites disappeared in those surviving more than 90 days after the first SBP event.

Association between complicated liver cirrhosis and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in Taiwan

Hepatic encephalopathy, ascites, and variceal bleeding are the three major complications of cirrhosis. It is well known that cirrhosis is the most important risk factor of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, little is known about whether the severity of liver cirrhosis has an effect on the incidence of HCC. This population-based cohort study aimed to explore the association between complicated cirrhosis and HCC, and identify the risk factors of HCC in patients with complicated cirrhosis. Data of the years 1997–2011 were extracted from the National Health Insurance Research Database of Taiwan. A total of 2568 patients with complicated cirrhosis without HCC at baseline were enrolled. After propensity score matching, another 2568 patients with non-complicated cirrhosis were included. Hazards Cox regression analysis by using a competing risk regression model to control for possible confounding factors was utilized to estimate the association of the complications of liver cirrhosis with the risk of HCC. We observed by using competing risk analysis that the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for developing HCC during the follow-up period after the initial hospitalization was higher among the patients with baseline complicated cirrhosis than in those with uncomplicated cirrhosis (HR, 1.23; 95% confidence interval, CI, 1.10–1.37, p<0.001). Additionally, older patients (HR, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.01–1.02, p<0.001), males (HR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.74–0.96, p = 0.009), and patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis (HR, 1.93; 95% CI, 1.65–2.26, p<0.001) had a statistically significant difference in the incidence of HCC. In conclusion, complicated liver cirrhosis is associated with a higher risk of HCC in Taiwan compared with cirrhosis without complications.

Mortality Following Catheter Drainage Versus Thoracentesis in Cirrhotic Patients with Pleural Effusion

BACKGROUND

Pleural effusion is an abnormal collection of body fluids that may cause related morbidity or mortality in cirrhotic patients. There are insufficient data to determine the optimal method of drainage, for symptomatic relief in cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion.

AIMS

In this study, we compare the mortality outcomes of catheter drainage versus thoracentesis in cirrhotic patients.

METHODS

The National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, was used to identify cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion requiring drainage between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2010. In all, 2556 cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion were selected for the study and divided into the two groups (n = 1278/group) after propensity score matching.

RESULTS

The mean age was 61.0 ± 14.3 years, and 68.9% (1761/2556) were men. The overall 30-day mortality was 21.0% (538/2556) and was higher in patients treated with catheter drainage than those treated with thoracentesis (23.5 vs. 18.6%, respectively, P < 0.001 by log-rank test). After Cox proportional hazard regression analysis adjusted by patient sex, age, and comorbid disorders, the risk of 30-day mortality was significantly higher in cirrhotic patients who accepted catheter drainage compared to thoracentesis (hazard ratio 1.30, 95% confidence interval 1.10-1.54, P = 0.003). Old age, hepatic encephalopathy, bleeding esophageal varices, hepatocellular carcinoma, ascites, and pneumonia were associated with higher risks for 30-day mortality.

CONCLUSION

In cirrhotic patients with pleural effusion requiring drainage, catheter drainage is associated with higher mortality compared to thoracentesis.

A Real-World Evaluation of Repeat Paracentesis-guided Management of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is a common infection in cirrhosis associated with high mortality. More than 20% of patients with SBP do not respond to initial antibiotics. Guidelines differ in recommendations to repeat paracentesis (retap) to confirm antibiotic efficacy. We aim to evaluate the effect of retap-guided management of SBP on antibiotic escalation and 30-day transplant-free survival.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Retrospective cohort study of cirrhotic patients with SBP admitted to a single transplant center from 2010 to 2014. Patients were divided into 2 groups: retap-guided management versus no retap. Prevalence of initial antibiotic treatment failure, defined as <25% decrease in ascitic polymorphonuclear cells, and factors associated with treatment failure, antibiotic escalation and 30-day transplant-free survival were evaluated.

RESULTS

Out of 210 patients, 146 (age 58, 74% male, mean model for end-stage liver disease score, 25) had retap and treatment failure was noted in 28 (22%). Gram-positive bacteria accounted for 44% of all positive cultures and third-generation cepahalosporin resistance was noted in 23%. Thirty-day transplant-free survival was 72% and 62% in retap and control groups, respectively (P=0.07). Treatment failure independently doubled the 30-day mortality rate (hazard ratio: 2.15, 1.03 to 4.50, P=0.04). After adjusting for age, model for end-stage liver disease and nosocomial infection, retap-guided management was not associated with improved survival (P=0.34).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of initial treatment failure is high (22%) in patients with SBP and doubles the 30-day mortality risk, supporting recommendations to retap all patients with SBP.

The Effect of Renal Function Impairment on the Mortality of Cirrhotic Patients: A Nationwide Population-Based 3-Year Follow-up Study

Renal function impairment (RFI) contributes to poor prognosis in cirrhotic patients. However, there have been no studies that seek to identify the effect of different types of RFI on the mortality of cirrhotic patients. We used the National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, to identify 44365 cirrhotic patients between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2007. RFI was identified in 2832 cirrhotic patients, including 1075 with acute renal failure (ARF) (169 with hepatorenal syndrome, HRS; 906 with non-hepatorenal syndrome, NHRS), 705 with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and 1052 with end stage renal disease (ESRD). After Cox proportional hazard regression analysis adjusted by gender, age, and comorbid disorders, the 30-day, 30 to 90-day, 90-day to 1-year, and 1 to 3-year mortality hazard ratios (HR) compared to the non-RFI group were: (ARF) 5.19 (4.70-5.74), 3.23 (2.76-3.77), 1.51 (1.26-1.81), and 1.35 (1.13-1.61), respectively; (CKD) 2.70 (2.30-3.18), 2.03 (1.66-2.49), 1.60 (1.34-1.90), and 1.26 (1.06-1.49), respectively; and (ESRD) 1.42 (1.17-1.72), 1.62 (1.35-1.94), 1.90 (1.68-2.15), and 1.67 (1.48-1.89), respectively. Compared to NHRS, the 30-day, 30 to 90-day, 90-day to 1-year, and 1 to 3-year mortality HRs of HRS were 1.03 (0.80-1.32), 2.13 (1.46-3.11), 1.58 (0.90-2.75), and 2.51 (1.41-4.48), respectively, in cirrhotic patients with ARF. These results indicate the effects of CKD and ESRD on the mortality of cirrhotic patients are distributed equally in every survival stage, whereas the effect of ARF appears only in the early stage. Compared to NHRS, HRS contributes to a higher mortality risk at the late survival stage.

A randomized open label study of 'imipenem vs. cefepime' in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), in the presence of bacterial resistance or failure of third generation cephalosporins (3rd GC) has poor outcome. Empirical antibiotic(s) options are limited in these scenarios.

METHODS

Consecutive cirrhotics with SBP because of hospital acquired SBP (>48 h of admission), microbial resistance or non-response (no resolution of SBP at 48 h) were randomized to Cefepime (n = 88) or Imipenem (n = 87) plus standard medical therapy. We assessed for 'response at 48 h' (reduction in ascitic fluid absolute neutrophil count (ANC) by >25% at 48 h), resolution of SBP (<250 cu/mm ANC at day 5) and their clinical outcome.

RESULTS

Of 957 paracentesis in 1200 hospitalized cirrhotics, 253 (26.4%) had SBP and 175 (69.6%) were randomized. Baseline parameters were comparable in two groups. Response at 48 h (58.6% vs. 51.7%; P = 0.4) and resolution of SBP in those with response at 48 h were comparable with no difference in mortality at week 2, month 1 and 3. Patients with 'No response at 48 h' had higher mortality compared with responders (73.8% vs. 25%; P < 0.001). Resolution of SBP was associated with 'response at 48 h' and septic shock, latter being main pre-terminal event. AKI at enrolment [Hazard ratio (HR), 2.6], pneumonia [HR, 2.9], septic shock [HR, 2.2] and response at 48 h [HR, 4.6] predicted poor outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

In hospitalized cirrhotics with SBP and risk factors for treatment failure, cefepime showed comparable efficacy and survival to imipenem. Non-response to therapy at 48 h is a reliable predictor of treatment failure and mortality. Antibiotic combinations and novel options are needed for these patients.

High Mortality of Cirrhotic Patients With End-Stage Renal Disease

Ascites, hepatic encephalopathy (HE), and esophageal variceal bleeding (EVB) are 3 major complications in patients with cirrhosis. Limited data exist with which to evaluate the long-term mortality of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in cirrhotic patients with or without complications.The National Health Insurance Database in Taiwan was used to identify patients with cirrhosis hospitalized between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2007. The study group consisted of 1068 cirrhotic patients with ESRD, and the control group consisted of 10,680 randomly selected cirrhotic patients without baseline renal function impairment.The overall 1-year and 3-year mortality rates were 48.5% and 73.1% in the ESRD group, and 32.9% and 55.6% in the control group, respectively. After adjusting for other comorbid disorders, the cirrhotic patients with ESRD showed a statistically significant increase in 3-year mortality (hazard ratio [HR], 1.65; P < 0.001). The HR for 3-year mortality of ESRD cirrhotic patients with recurrent complications was 1.98 (P < 0.001), compared to those with no recent or past complications. The HR of ESRD for 3-year mortality was 1.48 (P < 0.001) in cirrhotic patients with ascites, 1.67 (P < 0.001) in patients with EVB, and 1.19 (P = 0.147) in patients with HE.ESRD increases the mortality rate in patients with cirrhosis. Recurrent complications can account for a 2-fold increase in the 3-year mortality of ESRD cirrhotic patients. ESRD has a smaller impact on the 3-year mortality of cirrhotic patients with HE compared to those with ascites or EVB.

Effect of coexisting diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease on mortality of cirrhotic patients with esophageal variceal bleeding

BACKGROUND

Esophageal variceal bleeding (EVB) is a serious and common complication of cirrhosis. Diabetes mellitus (DM) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) increase mortality in patients with cirrhosis. However, whether coexisting DM and CKD increase mortality in cirrhotic patients with EVB remains unclear.

METHODS

We enrolled cirrhotic patients hospitalized with the first presentation of EVB from 2005 through 2010 using Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2005. The hazard ratios (HRs) of 42-day and one-year EVB mortality were calculated using Cox regression model.

RESULTS

We identified 888 patients hospitalized with the first presentation of EVB. Among the cirrhotic patients with EVB, all-cause mortality at 42-day and one-year were 21.3 and 45.0 %, respectively. The respective HRs for the 42-day and one-year mortality were 1.80 (95 % confidence interval [CI], 1.10-2.97) and 1.52 (95 % CI, 1.06-2.17) for patients with CKD and 0.79 (95 % CI, 0.57-1.10) and 0.88 (95 % CI, 0.71-1.09) for patients with DM. Specifically, coexisting CKD and DM increased the 42-day and one-year mortality with respective HRs of 1.99 (95%CI, 1.03-3.84) and 1.84 (95%CI, 1.14-2.98) compared with those without CKD and DM. The HRs for 42-day and 1-year mortality in female patients with DM and CKD were 4.03 (95%CI, 1.40-11.59) and 2.84 (95%CI, 1.31-6.14) respectively, and were 2.93 (95%CI, 1.14-7.57) and 2.42 (95%CI, 1.28-4.57) in male patients with DM and CKD.

CONCLUSION

We identified that coexisting DM and CKD increased risk of mortality at 42 days and 1 year following EVB.

A quick screening model for symptomatic bacterascites in cirrhosis

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis can be made when a patient has an ascites polymorphonuclear leukocyte count ≥250/mm3. However, symptomatic bacterascites, which is a variant of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis with signs of infection but an ascites polymorphonuclear leukocyte count <250/mm3, cannot be confirmed until the time-consuming ascites culture becomes positive. Currently, early indicators for symptomatic bacterascites remain undetermined.

AIMS

To develop a quick screening model for early detection of symptomatic bacterascites in cirrhosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data on patients with cirrhotic ascites from two hospitals (from 2010 to 2014) were collected retrospectively. Patients with symptomatic bacterascites were enrolled in the case group and compared with patients without any infection in the control group. Logistic regression analysis was used to build a model for screening symptomatic bacterascites, and a receiver operating characteristics curve was used to assess the model.

RESULTS

In total, 103 patients were enrolled in the case group and 204 patients were enrolled in the control group. A screening model was constructed based on body temperature, abdominal tenderness, blood neutrophil percentage, blood total bilirubin, prothrombin time, and ascites nucleated leukocyte count. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.939; a screening score of 0.328 was the best cutoff value.

CONCLUSION

Patients with suspected symptomatic bacterascites can be quickly screened according to the developed model, and a screening score ≥0.328 indicates symptomatic bacterascites.

A fourfold increase of oesophageal variceal bleeding in cirrhotic patients with a history of oesophageal variceal bleeding

INTRODUCTION

Large, recent population-based data for evaluating the predictors of oesophageal variceal bleeding (OVB) among cirrhotic patients is still lacking. This study aimed to determine the cumulative incidence of OVB among cirrhotic patients and identify the predictors of OVB occurrence.

METHODS

Patient information on 38,172 cirrhotic patients without a history of OVB, who were discharged between 1 January 2007 and 31 December 2007, was obtained from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database for this study. All patients were followed up for three years. Death was the competing risk when calculating the cumulative incidences and hazard ratios (HRs) of OVB.

RESULTS

OVB was present in 2,609 patients (OVB group) and absent in 35,563 patients (non-OVB group) at hospitalisation. During the three-year follow-up period, the cumulative incidence of OVB was 44.5% and 11.3% in the OVB and non-OVB group, respectively (p < 0.001). Modified Cox regression analysis showed that the HR of OVB history was 4.42 for OVB occurrence (95% confidence interval [CI] 4.13-4.74). Other predictors for OVB occurrence included hepatocellular carcinoma (HR 1.16, 95% CI 1.09-1.24), young age (HR 0.98, 95% CI 0.98-0.98), ascites (HR 1.46, 95% CI 1.37-1.56), alcohol-related disorders (HR 1.20, 95% CI 1.12-1.28), peptic ulcer bleeding (HR 1.26, 95% CI 1.13-1.41) and diabetes mellitus (HR 1.14, 95% CI 1.06-1.23).

CONCLUSION

Cirrhotic patients have a fourfold increased risk of future OVB following the first incidence of OVB.

The Negative Prognostic Impact of a First Ever Episode of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in Cirrhosis and Ascites

BACKGROUND

The prognostic impact of the first ever episode of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) on patient outcomes is not well described. Our aim was to compare the clinical outcomes of cirrhotic patients with ascites, and with or without a first episode of SBP.

METHODS

Consecutive patients with cirrhosis and ascites were prospectively enrolled. Demographics, liver and renal function, and hemodynamics were documented at baseline, at resolution of SBP, and thereafter at 4 monthly intervals for 12 months. Complications of cirrhosis and survival were noted.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine cirrhotic patients with a first ever episode of SBP (group A) and 123 control patients slightly younger but similar in gender who never had SBP (group B) were enrolled. At SBP diagnosis, group A had worse liver and renal function (Model of End-Stage Liver Disease : 21.1±10.6 vs. 14.4±5.0), lower serum sodium concentrations, and a more hyperdynamic circulation compared with group B (all P<0.001). SBP resolution resulted in improvement in all measures to baseline levels. During follow-up, group A required more frequent hospital admissions than group B (58% vs. 43%), developed more cirrhotic complications, including further SBP (31% vs. 3%*), hyponatremia (12% vs. 0.8%*), acute kidney injury (50% vs. 23%*), hepatorenal syndrome type 1 (46% vs. 7%*), liver transplantation (62% vs. 30%*), and had a worse overall 1-year survival (38% vs. 70%*) (*P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

A first SBP episode is commonly followed by multiple complications, and overall worse prognosis. Consideration should be given to assess cirrhotic patients for liver transplant after the first episode of SBP.

Long-term outcomes after hospitalization with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the determinants of long-term outcome in patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP).

METHODS

This study was conducted retrospectively. Kaplan-Meier (KM) and Cox proportional hazards survival analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Altogether, 93 patients with SBP were identified, with their mean age of 57.9 ± 12.9 years, Child-Pugh score 10.4 ± 1.9 and model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score 20.2 ± 6.8. The etiology of chronic liver disease (CLD) was alcohol-related liver disease (ARLD) (n = 58) and viral hepatitis/non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (n = 28). SBP was the index presentation of cirrhosis in 26 (28.0%) patients. Overall mortality was 80.6%; among them 81.3% were liver-related, and 33 (35.5%) died during index hospitalization. In total, 70.0% of patients who survived index hospitalization died during follow-up, with a median survival of 12.5 months. Estimated survival at 3 months, 1 year and 5 years was 54.8%, 34.4% and 15.2%, respectively. Non-ARLD etiology for CLD was an independent predictor of overall mortality (HR 3.484, 95% CI 1.802-6.757, P < 0.001) and mortality in those surviving hospitalization (HR 2.319, 95% CI 1.210-4.444, P = 0.011). Hepatorenal syndrome did not predict outcomes. Two (3.3%) patients surviving hospitalization underwent liver transplantation (LT).

CONCLUSIONS

One-year survival after hospitalization with SBP remains poor (34.4%) with unacceptably low LT rates. Non-ARLD etiology for CLD is an independent predictor of both overall mortality and mortality after discharge. In view of the projected increase in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis-related CLD, screening strategies for timely CLD diagnosis are warranted.

The effect of tuberculosis on the mortality of cirrhotic patients: a population-based 3-year follow-up study

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is still unknown if TB, like other infectious diseases contributes a poor prognosis in cirrhotic patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of TB on the mortality of cirrhotic patients. National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, was used to identify 434 cirrhotic patients with new diagnosis of TB between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2007. The comparison group consisted of 4340 selected cirrhotic patients without TB in the same period by propensity score matching analysis. The 30-day, 90-day, 1-year and 3-year mortalities were 10.1%, 24.2%, 43.1%, and 63% in the TB group, and 7.9%, 15.5%, 31.2%, and 53.4% in the non-TB group. After Cox proportional hazard regression model adjusted by the patients' gender, age, and comorbid disorders, the hazard ratios (HR) in cirrhotic patients with TB for 30-day, 30 to 90-day, 90-day to 1-year, and 1 to 3-year mortalities were 1.33 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.97-1.83], 1.91 (95% CI 1.45-2.51), 1.46 (95% CI 1.16-1.84), and 1.10 (95% CI 0.88-1.37), compared to the non-TB group. In conclusion, TB is a risk factor for the mortality of cirrhotic patients. The effect focused on the 30-day to 1-year after diagnosis of TB.

Effect of renal function impairment on the mortality of cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy: a population-based 3-year follow-up study

Kidney is an important organ to clear neurotoxic substance in circulation. However, it is still unknown about the effect of renal function impairment (RFI) on the mortality of cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy (HE). We used the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database to identify 4932 cirrhotic patients with HE, hospitalized between January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2007. The enrolled patients were followed up individually for 3 years to identify their 3-year mortalities. There were 411 (8.3%) patients with RFI and 4521 (91.7%) patients without RFI. The adjusted hazard ratio (HR) of RFI for 3-year mortality was 2.03 (95% CI, 1.82-2.27). In RFI group, there were 157 (38.2%) patients with acute renal failure (ARF), 61 (14.8%) with hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), 93 (22.6%) with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and 100 (24.3%) with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Compared with the non-RFI group, the adjusted HR of ARF for 3-year mortality was 2.57 (95% CI, 2.17-3.06), CKD 1.93 (95% CI, 1.55-2.40), ESRD 1.26 (95% CI, 1.01-1.57), and HRS 3.58 (95% CI, 2.78-4.63). Among ESRD patients, there were 99 patients receiving hemodialysis regularly. Compared with the CKD group, the adjusted HR of ESRD with hemodialysis for 3-year mortality was 0.664 (95% CI, 0.466-0.945). RFI increased the 3-year mortality of cirrhotic patients with HE, especially ARF and HRS. HE patients with ESRD receiving hemodialysis had better 3-year survival rate than those with CKD.

Impact of renal dysfunction in cirrhotic patients with bacterial infections other than spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

AIM

The impact of renal dysfunction has not been well evaluated among cirrhotic patients having bacterial infections other than spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP). We aimed to examine the impact of renal function impairment (RFI) among cirrhotic patients with non-SBP bacterial infections.

METHODS

Data of 7134 cirrhotic patients with non-SBP bacterial infections extracted from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, in 2004 were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 579 (8.1%) patients had renal dysfunction. Of these, 223 patients had acute renal failure (ARF), and 141 had end-stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring hemodialysis before admission. The overall 30-day, 1-year and 3-year mortalities were 15.8%, 39.3% and 54.5%, respectively. Compared with the non-RFI group, the adjusted hazard ratios (HR) of 30-day mortality for RFI, ARF and ESRD were 3.20 (P < 0.001), 4.81 (P < 0.001) and 1.59 (P = 0.015); the adjusted HR of 1-year mortality for RFI, ARF and ESRD were 2.68 (P < 0.001), 3.50 (P < 0.001) and 1.84 (P < 0.001), and adjusted HR of 3-year mortality for RFI, ARF and ESRD were 2.34 (P < 0.001), 2.97 (P < 0.001) and 1.76 (P < 0.001). The adjusted HR of 30-day, 1-year and 3-year mortalities for the ARF group were 2.98 (P < 0.001), 1.74 (P < 0.001) and 1.58 (P = 0.001) compared with the ESRD group, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This population-based cohort study shows that RFI, especially ARF, is an independent poor prognostic factor in cirrhotic patients with non-SBP bacterial infections.

High mortality of pneumonia in cirrhotic patients with ascites

Background

Cirrhotic patients with ascites are prone to develop various infectious diseases. This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence and effect of major infectious diseases on the mortality of cirrhotic patients with ascites.

Methods

We reviewed de-identified patient data from the National Health Insurance Database, derived from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Program, to enroll 4,576 cirrhotic patients with ascites, who were discharged from Taiwan hospitals between January 1, 2004 and June 30, 2004. We collected patients’ demographic and clinical data, and reviewed diagnostic codes to determine infectious diseases and comorbid disorders of their hospitalizations. Patients were divided into an infection group and non-infection group and hazard ratios (HR) were determined for specific infectious diseases.

Results

Of the total 4,576 cirrhotic patients with ascites, 1,294 (28.2%) were diagnosed with infectious diseases during hospitalization. The major infectious diseases were spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) (645, 49.8%), urinary tract infection (151, 11.7%), and pneumonia (100, 7.7%). After adjusting for patients’ age, gender, and other comorbid disorders, the HRs of infectious diseases for 30-day and 90-day mortality of cirrhotic patients with ascites were 1.81 (1.54-2.11) and 1.60 (1.43-1.80) respectively, compared to those in the non-infection group. The adjusted HRs of pneumonia, urinary tract infection (UTI), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), and sepsis without specific focus (SWSF) were 2.95 (2.05-4.25), 1.32 (0.86-2.05), 1.77 (1.45-2.17), and 2.19 (1.62-2.96) for 30-day mortality, and 2.57 (1.93-3.42), 1.36 (1.01-1.82), 1.51 (1.29-1.75), and 2.13 (1.70-2.66) for 90-day mortality, compared to those in the non-infection group.

Conclusion

Infectious diseases increased 30-day and 90-day mortality of cirrhotic patients with ascites. Among all infectious diseases identified, pneumonia carried the highest risk for mortality.

Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 in cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

AIM: To evaluate the role of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in cirrhotic patients who have hepatic and renal impairment with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP).

METHODS: We prospectively studied 120 cirrhotic patients with SBP and 80 cirrhotic patients with sterile ascitic fluid. They included 144 males and 56 females with ages ranging between 34 and 62 years. The diagnosis of cirrhosis was established by clinical and laboratory criteria that did not require histological confirmation. The severity of underlying liver disease was evaluated using Pugh’s modification of Child’s criteria (Child-Pugh scores). Ascitic fluid was sent to the laboratory for cell count, culture, sensitivity testing, and measurement of chemical elements (i.e., albumin, glucose). Specimens were inoculated into aerobic and anaerobic blood culture bottles. Serum and ascitic fluid were also collected in sterile tubes at study entry (before the initiation of antibiotic treatment) and 48 h later. Assays for TNF-α and IL-6 in the serum and ascitic fluid were performed with an immunoenzymometric assay using manufacture’s instructions.

RESULTS: Cytokine levels in serum and ascitic fluid were significantly higher in the patients with SBP. (plasma TNF-α: 135.35 ng/mL ± 11.21 ng/mL vs 92.86 ng/mL ± 17.56 ng/mL, P < 0.001; plasma IL-6: 32.30 pg/mL ± 7.07 pg/mL vs 12.11 pg/mL ± 6.53 pg/mL, P < 0.001; ascitic fluid TNF-α: 647.54 ± 107.11 ng/mL vs 238.43 ng/mL ± 65.42 ng/mL, P < 0.001); ascitic fluid IL-6: 132.84 ng/mL ± 34.13 vs 40.41 ± 12.85 pg/mL, P < 0.001). About 48 (40%) cirrhotic patients with SBP developed renal and hepatic impairment and showed significantly higher plasma and ascitic fluid cytokine levels at diagnosis of infection. [(plasma TNF-α: 176.58 ± 17.84 vs 135.35 ± 11.21 ng/mL) (P < 0.001) and (IL-6: 57.83 ± 7.85 vs 32.30 ± 7.07 pg/mL) (P < 0.001); ascitic fluid TNF-α: 958.39 ± 135.72 vs 647.54 ± 107.11 ng/mL, (P < 0.001), ascitic fluid IL-6: 654.74 ± 97.43 vs 132.84 ± 34.13 pg/mL, (P < 0.001)]. Twenty nine patients (60.4%) with SBP and renal impairment died whereas, only four patients (5.55%) with SBP but without renal impairment died from gastrointestinal hemorrhage (P < 0.0005).

CONCLUSION: It appears that TNF-α production may enhance liver cell injury and lead to renal impairment. This correlated well with the poor prognosis and significantly increased mortality associated with SBP in cirrhotic patients.