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Zhang Y, Hou L, Yuan D, Wu J, Wang Y, Yu Y, Meng C, Yang F, Yan H, Du Y, Zhu H, Walline JH, Jiang Y, Gao Y, Li Y. Liver injury in paraquat poisoning: A retrospective cohort study. Liver Int 2024. [PMID: 38963300 DOI: 10.1111/liv.16024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Liver injury is one of the common complications of paraquat (PQ) poisoning, but whether the degree of liver injury is related to patient prognosis is still controversial. This study aimed to investigate whether liver injury was a risk factor for death in PQ-poisoned patients. METHODS We conducted a retrospective cohort study of PQ-poisoned patients from the past 10 years (2011-2020) from a large tertiary academic medical centre in China. PQ-poisoned patients were divided into a normal liver function group (n = 580) and a liver injury group (n = 60). Propensity score matching (PSM) analysis was then performed. RESULTS A total of 640 patients with PQ poisoning were included in this study. To reduce the impact of bias, dose of PQ, urinary PQ concentration and time from poisoning to hospital admission were matched between the two groups. A 3:1 PSM analysis was performed, ultimately including 240 patients. Compared with the normal liver function group, patients in the liver injury group were older, had a higher R value ([ALT/ULN]/[ALP/ULN]) (p < .001) and had a higher mortality rate. Cox regression analysis showed that there was no significant association between alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin levels and hazard of death, but age, PQ dose, creatine kinase isoenzyme, creatine kinase, white blood cell count, neutrophil percentage and lymphocyte percentage were associated with mortality in patients with PQ poisoning. CONCLUSIONS The occurrence of liver injury within 48 h after PQ poisoning was a risk factor for mortality, and such liver injury was likely of a hepatocellular nature. Age, PQ dose, creatine kinase isoenzyme and white blood cell count were positively correlated with mortality, while creatine kinase, percentage of neutrophils and lymphocytes were inversely correlated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Linlin Hou
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ding Yuan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jingtao Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yibo Wang
- Emergency Department, The 7th People's Hospital of Zhengzhou, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yanwu Yu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Cuicui Meng
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Fang Yang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hongyi Yan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yuqi Du
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Huanzhou Zhu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Joseph H Walline
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Penn State Health, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center and The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yong Jiang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yanxia Gao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical Key Laboratory of Poisoning Diseases of Henan Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yi Li
- Emergency Department, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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2
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Shi W, Gao Y, Yang H, Li H, Liu T, Zhao J, Wei Z, Li Lin, Huang Y, Guo Y, Xu A, Bai Z, Xiao X. Bavachinin, a main compound of Psoraleae Fructus, facilitates GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis and causes hepatotoxicity in mice. Chem Biol Interact 2024:111133. [PMID: 38969277 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2024.111133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
Psoraleae Fructus (PF, Psoralea corylifolia L.), a traditional medicine with a long history of application, is widely used clinically for the treatment of various diseases. However, the reports of PF-related adverse reactions, such as hepatotoxicity, phototoxic dermatitis, and allergy, are increasing year by year, with liver injury being the mostly common. Our previous studies have demonstrated that PF and its preparations can cause liver injury in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated susceptibility mouse model, but the mechanism of PF-related liver injury is unclear. In this study, we showed that PF and bavachinin, a major component of PF, can directly induce the expression of caspase-1 and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), indicating that PF and bavachinin can directly triggered the activation of inflammasome. Furthermore, pretreatment with NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3), NLR family CARD domain containing 4 (NLRC4) or absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome inhibitors, containing MCC950, ODN TTAGGG (ODN) and carnosol, all significantly reversed bavachinin-induced inflammasome activation. Mechanistically, bavachinin dose-dependently promote Gasdermin D (GSDMD) post-shear activation and then induce mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production and this effect is markedly inhibited by pretreatment with N-Acetylcysteine amide (NAC). In addition, combination treatment of LPS and bavachinin significantly induced liver injury in mice, but not LPS or bavachinin alone, and transcriptome analysis further validated these results. Thus, PF and bavachinin can induce the activation of inflammasome by promoting GSDMD cleavage and cause hepatotoxicity in mice. Therefore, PF, bavachinin, and PF-related preparations should be avoided in patients with inflammasome activation-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Shi
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China; Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Huijie Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China; Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Li
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China; Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Tingting Liu
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Zhao
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Ziying Wei
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Li Lin
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China; Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yujiao Huang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yuming Guo
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Anlong Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China.
| | - Zhaofang Bai
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China; Military Institute of Chinese Materia, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China; National Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, China.
| | - Xiaohe Xiao
- Department of Hepatology, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China; Military Institute of Chinese Materia, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China; National Key Laboratory of Kidney Diseases, China.
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3
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Hernandez N, Bessone F, Andrade R. Emerging role of immunotherapy for cancer as a major cause of drug-induced liver injury. Ann Hepatol 2024; 29:101520. [PMID: 38852782 DOI: 10.1016/j.aohep.2024.101520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Nelia Hernandez
- Unidad Académica Gastroenterología, Hospital de Clínicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Fernando Bessone
- Hospital Provincial del Centenario, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Servicio de Gastroenterología y Hepatología, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Raul Andrade
- Servicios de Aparato Digestivo y Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, España; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, España
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4
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de Bruijn VMP, Rietjens IMCM. From hazard to risk prioritization: a case study to predict drug-induced cholestasis using physiologically based kinetic modeling. Arch Toxicol 2024:10.1007/s00204-024-03775-6. [PMID: 38755481 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03775-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Cholestasis is characterized by hepatic accumulation of bile acids. Clinical manifestation of cholestasis only occurs in a small proportion of exposed individuals. The present study aims to develop a new approach methodology (NAM) to predict drug-induced cholestasis as a result of drug-induced hepatic bile acid efflux inhibition and the resulting bile acid accumulation. To this end, hepatic concentrations of a panel of drugs were predicted by a generic physiologically based kinetic (PBK) drug model. Their effects on hepatic bile acid efflux were incorporated in a PBK model for bile acids. The predicted bile acid accumulation was used as a measure for a drug's cholestatic potency. The selected drugs were known to inhibit hepatic bile acid efflux in an assay with primary suspension-cultured hepatocytes and classified as common, rare, or no for cholestasis incidence. Common cholestasis drugs included were atorvastatin, chlorpromazine, cyclosporine, glimepiride, ketoconazole, and ritonavir. The cholestasis incidence of the drugs appeared not to be adequately predicted by their Ki for inhibition of hepatic bile acid efflux, but rather by the AUC of the PBK model predicted internal hepatic drug concentration at therapeutic dose level above this Ki. People with slower drug clearance, a larger bile acid pool, reduced bile salt export pump (BSEP) abundance, or given higher than therapeutic dose levels were predicted to be at higher risk to develop drug-induced cholestasis. The results provide a proof-of-principle of using a PBK-based NAM for cholestasis risk prioritization as a result of transporter inhibition and identification of individual risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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5
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Moreno-Torres M, López-Pascual E, Rapisarda A, Quintás G, Drees A, Steffensen IL, Luechtefeld T, Serrano-Candelas E, de Lomana MG, Gadaleta D, Dirven H, Vinken M, Jover R. Novel clinical phenotypes, drug categorization, and outcome prediction in drug-induced cholestasis: Analysis of a database of 432 patients developed by literature review and machine learning support. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 174:116530. [PMID: 38574623 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Serum transaminases, alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin are common parameters used for DILI diagnosis, classification, and prognosis. However, the relevance of clinical examination, histopathology and drug chemical properties have not been fully investigated. As cholestasis is a frequent and complex DILI manifestation, our goal was to investigate the relevance of clinical features and drug properties to stratify drug-induced cholestasis (DIC) patients, and to develop a prognosis model to identify patients at risk and high-concern drugs. METHODS DIC-related articles were searched by keywords and Boolean operators in seven databases. Relevant articles were uploaded onto Sysrev, a machine-learning based platform for article review and data extraction. Demographic, clinical, biochemical, and liver histopathological data were collected. Drug properties were obtained from databases or QSAR modelling. Statistical analyses and logistic regressions were performed. RESULTS Data from 432 DIC patients associated with 52 drugs were collected. Fibrosis strongly associated with fatality, whereas canalicular paucity and ALP associated with chronicity. Drugs causing cholestasis clustered in three major groups. The pure cholestatic pattern divided into two subphenotypes with differences in prognosis, canalicular paucity, fibrosis, ALP and bilirubin. A predictive model of DIC outcome based on non-invasive parameters and drug properties was developed. Results demonstrate that physicochemical (pKa-a) and pharmacokinetic (bioavailability, CYP2C9) attributes impinged on the DIC phenotype and allowed the identification of high-concern drugs. CONCLUSIONS We identified novel associations among DIC manifestations and disclosed novel DIC subphenotypes with specific clinical and chemical traits. The developed predictive DIC outcome model could facilitate DIC prognosis in clinical practice and drug categorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Moreno-Torres
- Joint Research Unit in Experimental Hepatology, Dep. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Valencia, Health Research Institute Hospital La Fe & CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases, Spain.
| | - Ernesto López-Pascual
- Joint Research Unit in Experimental Hepatology, Dep. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Valencia, Health Research Institute Hospital La Fe & CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases, Spain
| | - Anna Rapisarda
- Joint Research Unit in Experimental Hepatology, Dep. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Valencia, Health Research Institute Hospital La Fe & CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases, Spain
| | - Guillermo Quintás
- Health and Biomedicine, LEITAT Technological Center, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Annika Drees
- Entity of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
| | - Inger-Lise Steffensen
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | - Marina Garcia de Lomana
- Bayer AG, Machine Learning Research, Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | - Domenico Gadaleta
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCSS, Milano 20156, Italy
| | - Hubert Dirven
- Department of Chemical Toxicology, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mathieu Vinken
- Entity of In Vitro Toxicology and Dermato-Cosmetology, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
| | - Ramiro Jover
- Joint Research Unit in Experimental Hepatology, Dep. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Valencia, Health Research Institute Hospital La Fe & CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases, Spain.
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Nikolajevic N, Nikolajevic M, Pantic I, Korica B, Kotseva M, Alempijevic T, Jevtic D, Madrid CI, Dumic I. Drug-Induced Liver Injury Due to Doxycycline: A Case Report and Review of Literature. Cureus 2024; 16:e59687. [PMID: 38836151 PMCID: PMC11150051 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.59687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Antibiotics are among the most common causes of drug-induced liver injury worldwide. Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and nitrofurantoin are the most common culprits while tetracyclines are a rare cause of liver injury. Among tetracyclines, minocycline has been reported more frequently than doxycycline, which is an extremely rare cause of drug-induced liver injury. We present a healthy 28-year-old male patient from rural United States who was taking doxycycline for Lyme disease. After five days of therapy, he developed nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and significant transaminitis consistent with a hepatocellular pattern of liver injury. After a thorough workup which ruled out other causes such as infection, autoimmune diseases, liver malignancy, and vascular, structural, and metabolic disorders, his liver injury was attributed to doxycycline. We reached the diagnosis also by demonstrating a consistent temporal association between doxycycline intake and liver injury and the patient recovered completely with the cessation of doxycycline. Recognition of doxycycline as a cause of drug-induced liver injury should be considered in patients utilizing this antibiotic. Doxycycline, unlike minocycline, has a short latency period. Early recognition and discontinuation of doxycycline in our patient resulted in the complete resolution of symptoms and transaminitis preventing further morbidity and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Nikolajevic
- Internal Medicine, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, SRB
| | - Milan Nikolajevic
- Internal Medicine, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Medicine, Belgrade, SRB
| | - Ivana Pantic
- Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinic for Gastroenterology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, SRB
| | - Bojan Korica
- Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinic for Gastroenterology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, SRB
| | | | - Tamara Alempijevic
- Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinic for Gastroenterology, University Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, SRB
| | - Dorde Jevtic
- Internal Medicine, NYC Health + Hospitals/Elmhurst, Queens, USA
| | | | - Igor Dumic
- Hospital Medicine, Mayo Clinic Health System, Eau Claire, USA
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7
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Díaz LA, Villota-Rivas M, Barrera F, Lazarus JV, Arrese M. The burden of liver disease in Latin America. Ann Hepatol 2024; 29:101175. [PMID: 37922988 DOI: 10.1016/j.aohep.2023.101175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Liver disease poses a substantial burden in Latin America. This burden is primarily attributed to a high level of alcohol consumption and the increasing prevalence of risk factors associated with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), such as sedentary lifestyles, easy access to ultra-processed foods, obesity, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. These epidemiological trends are cause for concern, especially considering that there are significant challenges in addressing them due to disparities in access to liver disease screening and care. In this article, we aim to provide an overview of the current situation regarding liver disease in Latin America. We also discuss recent multinational proposals designed to address the growing MASLD burden via its integration into existing non-communicable diseases policies, at both local and global levels. Additionally, we emphasize the urgent need to establish effective public health policies that target both MASLD risk factors and excessive alcohol consumption. Furthermore, we discuss the development of liver transplantation programs, areas for improvement in medical education and research capabilities, and how the fostering of extensive collaboration among all stakeholders is crucial for addressing liver disease in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Antonio Díaz
- Departamento de Gastroenterología, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Observatorio Multicéntrico de Enfermedades Gastrointestinales (OMEGA), Santiago, Chile
| | - Marcela Villota-Rivas
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francisco Barrera
- Departamento de Gastroenterología, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Observatorio Multicéntrico de Enfermedades Gastrointestinales (OMEGA), Santiago, Chile
| | - Jeffrey V Lazarus
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CUNY Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy (CUNY SPH), New York, NY, United States; Global NASH Council, Washington DC, United States
| | - Marco Arrese
- Departamento de Gastroenterología, Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Observatorio Multicéntrico de Enfermedades Gastrointestinales (OMEGA), Santiago, Chile; Global NASH Council, Washington DC, United States.
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8
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Lin J, Fan A, Yifu Z, Xie Q, Hong L, Zhou W. BTF3L4 Overexpression Mediates APAP-induced Liver Injury in Mouse and Cellular Models. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2024; 12:245-256. [PMID: 38426192 PMCID: PMC10899873 DOI: 10.14218/jcth.2023.00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims Acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury (AILI) has an increasing incidence worldwide. However, the mechanisms contributing to such liver injury are largely unknown and no targeted therapy is currently available. The study aimed to investigate the effect of BTF3L4 overexpression on apoptosis and inflammation regulation in vitro and in vivo. Methods We performed a proteomic analysis of the AILI model and found basic transcription factor 3 like 4 (BTF3L4) was the only outlier transcription factor overexpressed in the AILI model in mice. BTF3L4 overexpression increased the degree of liver injury in the AILI model. Results BTF3L4 exerts its pathogenic effect by inducing an inflammatory response and damaging mitochondrial function. Increased BTF3L4 expression increases the degree of apoptosis, reactive oxygen species generation, and oxidative stress, which induces cell death and liver injury. The damage of mitochondrial function by BTF3L4 triggers a cascade of events, including reactive oxygen species accumulation and oxidative stress. According to the available AILI data, BTF3L4 expression is positively associated with inflammation and may be a potential biomarker of AILI. Conclusions Our results suggest that BTF3L4 is a pathogenic factor in AILI and may be a potential diagnostic maker for AILI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junchao Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Aqiang Fan
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhujin Yifu
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qibing Xie
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Liu Hong
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wei Zhou
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Military Medical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
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9
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Ahmed T, Ahmad J. Recent advances in the diagnosis of drug-induced liver injury. World J Hepatol 2024; 16:186-192. [PMID: 38495272 PMCID: PMC10941738 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v16.i2.186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major problem in the United States, commonly leading to hospital admission. Diagnosing DILI is difficult as it is a diagnosis of exclusion requiring a temporal relationship between drug exposure and liver injury and a thorough work up for other causes. In addition, DILI has a very variable clinical and histologic presentation that can mimic many different etiologies of liver disease. Objective scoring systems can assess the probability that a drug caused the liver injury but liver biopsy findings are not part of the criteria used in these systems. This review will address some of the recent updates to the scoring systems and the role of liver biopsy in the diagnosis of DILI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taqwa Ahmed
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States
| | - Jawad Ahmad
- Department of Recanati-Miller Transplantation Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States.
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10
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Lucena MI, Villanueva-Paz M, Alvarez-Alvarez I, Aithal GP, Björnsson ES, Cakan-Akdogan G, Cubero FJ, Esteves F, Falcon-Perez JM, Fromenty B, Garcia-Ruiz C, Grove JI, Konu O, Kranendonk M, Kullak-Ublick GA, Miranda JP, Remesal-Doblado A, Sancho-Bru P, Nelson L, Andrade RJ, Daly AK, Fernandez-Checa JC. Roadmap to DILI research in Europe. A proposal from COST action ProEuroDILINet. Pharmacol Res 2024; 200:107046. [PMID: 38159783 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.107046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
In the current article the aims for a constructive way forward in Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) are to highlight the most important priorities in research and clinical science, therefore supporting a more informed, focused, and better funded future for European DILI research. This Roadmap aims to identify key challenges, define a shared vision across all stakeholders for the opportunities to overcome these challenges and propose a high-quality research program to achieve progress on the prediction, prevention, diagnosis and management of this condition and impact on healthcare practice in the field of DILI. This will involve 1. Creation of a database encompassing optimised case report form for prospectively identified DILI cases with well-characterised controls with competing diagnoses, biological samples, and imaging data; 2. Establishing of preclinical models to improve the assessment and prediction of hepatotoxicity in humans to guide future drug safety testing; 3. Emphasis on implementation science and 4. Enhanced collaboration between drug-developers, clinicians and regulatory scientists. This proposed operational framework will advance DILI research and may bring together basic, applied, translational and clinical research in DILI.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Lucena
- Servicios de Aparato Digestivo y Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain; Plataforma de Investigación Clínica y Ensayos Clínicos UICEC-IBIMA, Plataforma ISCIII de Investigación Clínica, Madrid, Spain.
| | - M Villanueva-Paz
- Servicios de Aparato Digestivo y Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain
| | - I Alvarez-Alvarez
- Servicios de Aparato Digestivo y Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain
| | - G P Aithal
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom; NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - E S Björnsson
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Landspitali University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - G Cakan-Akdogan
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center, Izmir, Turkey. Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - F J Cubero
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain; Department of Immunology, Ophthalmology and ORL, Complutense University School of Medicine, Madrid, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - F Esteves
- Center for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), NMS | FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J M Falcon-Perez
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain; Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia, 48160, Spain. IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Bizkaia 48009, Spain
| | - B Fromenty
- INSERM, Univ Rennes, INRAE, Institut NUMECAN (Nutrition Metabolisms and Cancer) UMR_A 1341, UMR_S 1317, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - C Garcia-Ruiz
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain. University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB), CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J I Grove
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, Translational Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom; NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and the University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - O Konu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Science, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey; Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey; UNAM-Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - M Kranendonk
- Center for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), NMS | FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - G A Kullak-Ublick
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; CMO & Patient Safety, Global Drug Development, Novartis Pharma, Basel, Switzerland
| | - J P Miranda
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - A Remesal-Doblado
- Servicios de Aparato Digestivo y Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - P Sancho-Bru
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain. University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - L Nelson
- Institute for Bioengineering, School of Engineering, Faraday Building, The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - R J Andrade
- Servicios de Aparato Digestivo y Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga y Plataforma en Nanomedicina-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain
| | - A K Daly
- Translational & Clinical Research Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - J C Fernandez-Checa
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Madrid, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain. University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IIBB), CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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11
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Pocurull A, Moreta MJ, Heitman D, Olivas I, Collazos C, Canga E, Sáez-Peñataro J, Andrade RJ, Lucena MI, Mariño Z, Díaz A, Lens S, Londoño MC, Forns X. Anticancer drugs are the first cause of drug-induced liver injury in a reference hospital. Liver Int 2024; 44:286-292. [PMID: 38131512 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a challenging liver disorder for hepatologists. We aimed to assess the pattern and causes of DILI in a tertiary hospital. We registered prospectively all patients referred with suspicion of DILI from 2018 to 2023. A total of 106 patients fulfilled the diagnostic criteria (30 caused by paracetamol were excluded; total number 76). The pattern of liver injury was hepatocellular in 55 (72%). Drugs causing DILI were antineoplastic (26%), antibiotics (24%), analgesics (12%), and recreational drugs (9%). Regarding clinical outcomes, 39 (51%) required hospitalization and 7 (9%) underwent a liver transplantation or died from acute liver injury. We identified 126 additional patients with DILI due to immune check-point inhibitors who were not referred to a liver disease specialist. Antineoplastic drugs have become the first cause of DILI in hospitals. A multidisciplinary approach and specific educational tools to increase DILI awareness are needed among different specialists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Pocurull
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria José Moreta
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Heitman
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignasi Olivas
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Collazos
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elia Canga
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joaquin Sáez-Peñataro
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Medicine Department, Pharmacovigilance Program, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raul J Andrade
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Enfermedades Digestivas, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - M Isabel Lucena
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Enfermedades Digestivas, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga-IBIMA Plataforma BIONAND, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - Zoe Mariño
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alba Díaz
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
- Pathology Department, Hospital Clínic. IDIBAPS, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sabela Lens
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Carlota Londoño
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
| | - Xavier Forns
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación en Red de Hepatología y Gastroenterología, CIBERehd, Madrid, Spain
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12
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Gudushauri N, Navarro VJ, Halegoua-De Marzio D. A comprehensive update in herbal and dietary supplement-induced liver injury. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 2024; 23:e0185. [PMID: 38912001 PMCID: PMC11191983 DOI: 10.1097/cld.0000000000000185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nino Gudushauri
- Department of Medicine, Jefferson Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Victor J. Navarro
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Jefferson Einstein Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Dina Halegoua-De Marzio
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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13
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Lin M, Li Y, Cao B, Xu J, Zhang Y, Li G, Xiao X, Li C. Bavachin combined with epimedin B induce idiosyncratic liver injury under immunological stress conditions. Chem Biol Interact 2023; 386:110774. [PMID: 37866487 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2023.110774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Reports on Chinese patent medicines preparations containing Epimedii Folium (EF) and Psoraleae Fructus (PF) resulting in idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (IDILI) have received widespread attention. Previous studies have shown that bavachin and epimedin B-two active ingredients derived from both EF and PF-are potential components associated with IDILI, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We evaluated bavachin and epimedin B-induced IDILI under TNF-α-mediated immunological stress conditions and generated liver lipid metabolism profiles using lipidomics and multivariate statistical analysis. We next applied transcriptomics to identify the differential gene expression on the transcription level. Our results showed that co-exposure to bavachin, epimedin B under immunological stress conditions resulted in obvious liver injury. The differential metabolites screened in our study were closely related to the immune homeostasis of the liver. Sixteen differentially expressed genes were found, Zc3h6 and R3hdml were upregulated, while Sumo2, Cd74, Banp, Oas3, Oas2, Gbp8, Slfn8, Gbp2b, Serpina3g, Zbtb40, H2-Ab1, Osgin1, Tgtp1 and Hspa1b were all downregulated. These differentially expressed genes were associated with biological processes concerning metabolic process and immune system process. Further integrative analysis indicated that bavachin combined with epimedin B affected genes that were not only related to immune system processes, but also to lipid metabolism. Ultimately, this led to an imbalance in the immune microenvironment in the liver and may have contributed to the observed liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengmeng Lin
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yingying Li
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Bo Cao
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Jing Xu
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yujun Zhang
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Guohui Li
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
| | - Xiaohe Xiao
- China Military Institute of Chinese Medicine, Fifth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China.
| | - Chunyu Li
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
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14
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Allison R, Guraka A, Shawa IT, Tripathi G, Moritz W, Kermanizadeh A. Drug induced liver injury - a 2023 update. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2023; 26:442-467. [PMID: 37786264 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2023.2261848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) constitutes hepatic damage attributed to drug exposure. DILI may be categorized as hepatocellular, cholestatic or mixed and might also involve immune responses. When DILI occurs in dose-dependent manner, it is referred to as intrinsic, while if the injury occurs spontaneously, it is termed as idiosyncratic. This review predominately focused on idiosyncratic liver injury. The established molecular mechanisms for DILI include (1) mitochondria dysfunction, (2) increased reactive oxygen species levels, (3) presence of elevated apoptosis and necrosis, (4) and bile duct injuries associated with immune mediated pathways. However, it should be emphasized that the underlying mechanisms responsible for DILI are still unknown. Prevention strategies are critical as incidences occur frequently, and treatment options are limited once the injury has developed. The aim of this review was to utilize retrospective cohort studies from across the globe to gain insight into epidemiological patterns. This review considers (1) what is currently known regarding the mechanisms underlying DILI, (2) discusses potential risk factors and (3) implications of the coronavirus pandemic on DILI presentation and research. Future perspectives are also considered and discussed and include potential new biomarkers, causality assessment and reporting methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Allison
- College of Science and Technology, University of Derby, Derby, UK
| | - Asha Guraka
- College of Science and Technology, University of Derby, Derby, UK
| | - Isaac Thom Shawa
- College of Science and Technology, University of Derby, Derby, UK
| | - Gyan Tripathi
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - Ali Kermanizadeh
- College of Science and Technology, University of Derby, Derby, UK
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15
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Maev IV, Polunina TE. [Drug-induced liver injury: diagnosis of exclusion]. TERAPEVT ARKH 2023; 95:611-620. [PMID: 38158894 DOI: 10.26442/00403660.2023.08.202329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a relevant issue in clinical practice and is still a diagnosis of exclusion. Despite the low incidence in the general population, DILI is the cause of most cases of acute hepatic injury and has a mortality rate of up to 50%. Despite many reports in the medical literature about the DILI mechanisms, a clear causal relationship between them, drugs, and risk factors has not been established. Current clinical practice is based on a combination of a thorough study of a history of risk factors, the timing of drug and dietary supplements' administration, and the analysis of laboratory and instrumental tests. It aligns with the international criteria of the Rousell Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM), which is considered one of the main diagnostic algorithms for DILI. The article addresses current DILI classification, risk factors, diagnostic algorithms, causalities, clinical evaluation, promising liver function biomarkers, and specific treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- I V Maev
- Yevdokimov Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry
| | - T E Polunina
- Yevdokimov Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry
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