Child–robot interaction across cultures: How does playing a game with a social robot compare to playing a game alone or with a friend?

Therapists' perspective on acceptance of robot-assisted physical rehabilitation in a middle-income country: a study from Vietnam

Robot-assisted physical rehabilitation offers promising benefits for patients, yet its adoption among therapists remains a complex challenge. This study investigates the acceptance of robot-assisted physical rehabilitation technology among therapists in Vietnam, a middle-income country with a growing demand for rehabilitation services. Drawing on the Technology Acceptance Model 2 (TAM2) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), an online survey and semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore therapists' attitudes and intentions towards using this technology. The results show that Vietnamese therapists recognised its potential benefits and expressed a willingness to use it. Although having similar acceptance patterns compared to developed regions, they demonstrated significantly higher levels of agreement across acceptance constructs. This may be attributed to factors such as the novelty effect, cultural perceptions of robots, and the high workload of therapists in Vietnam. Gender and location were found to influence two acceptance constructs-subjective norms and image, respectively-highlighting the need for tailored strategies in technology implementation. The study underscores the importance of considering socio-cultural factors in the adoption of technology and provides insights for enhancing the acceptance and effectiveness of robot-assisted physical rehabilitation in Vietnam. This contributes to the global understanding of therapist acceptance of technology in this field.

Older Adults' Engagement and Mood During Robot-Assisted Group Activities in Nursing Homes: Development and Observational Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Promoting the well-being of older adults in an aging society requires new solutions. One resource might be the use of social robots for group activities that promote physical and cognitive stimulation. Engaging in a robot-assisted group activity may help in the slowdown of physical and cognitive decline in older adults. Currently, our knowledge is limited on whether older adults engage in group activities with humanlike social robots and whether they experience a positive affect while doing so. Both are necessary preconditions to achieve the intended effects of a group activity.

OBJECTIVE

Our pilot study has 2 aims. First, we aimed to develop and pilot an observational coding scheme for robot-assisted group activities because self-report data on engagement and mood of nursing home residents are often difficult to obtain, and the existing observation instruments do have limitations. Second, we aimed to investigate older adults' engagement and mood during robot-assisted group activities in 4 different nursing care homes in the German-speaking part of Switzerland.

METHODS

We developed an observation system, inspired by existing tools, for a structured observation of engagement and mood of older adults during a robot-assisted group activity. In this study, 85 older adult residents from 4 different care homes in Switzerland participated in 5 robot-assisted group activity sessions, and they were observed using our developed system. The data were collected in the form of video clips that were assessed by 2 raters regarding engagement (direction of gaze, posture as well as body expression, and activity) and mood (positive and negative affects). Both variables were rated on a 5-point rating scale.

RESULTS

Our pilot study findings show that the engagement and mood of older adults can be assessed reliably by using the proposed observational coding scheme. Most participants actively engaged in robot-assisted group activities (mean 4.19, SD 0.47; median 4.0). The variables used to measure engagement were direction of gaze (mean 4.65, SD 0.49; median 5.0), posture and body expression (mean 4.03, SD 0.71; median 4.0), and activity (mean 3.90, SD 0.65; median 4.0). Further, we observed mainly positive affects in this group. Almost no negative affect was observed (mean 1.13, SD 0.20; median 1.0), while the positive affect (mean 3.22, SD 0.55; median 3.2) was high.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed observational coding system can be used and further developed in future studies on robot-assisted group activities in the nursing home context and potentially in other settings. Additionally, our pilot study indicates that cognitive and physical stimulation of older adults can be promoted by social robots in a group setting. This finding encourages future technological development and improvement of social robots and points to the potential of observational research to systematically evaluate such developments.

The Effects of Social Presence and Familiarity on Children-Robot Interactions

In children-robot interactions, an impression of a robot's "social presence" (i.e., an interactive agent that feels like a person) links positively to an improved relationship with the robot. However, building relationships takes many exposures, and there is an intellectual gap in how social presence and familiarity collaborate in modulating children-robot relationships. We investigated whether social presence altered over time, how repeated exposure and social presence affected rapport, and how social presence would modulate children's attitudes toward the robot. Fourteen children (four female, age = 10.79 ± 1.12) interacted with a companion robot for four days in spontaneous interactions. The findings revealed that children who perceived the robot as having a higher social presence developed a stronger rapport than those who perceived a lower social presence. However, repeated encounters did not change the children's perceptions of the robot's social presence. Children rated higher rapport after repeated interactions regardless of social presence levels. This suggests that while a higher social presence initially elevated the positive relationship between children and the robot, it was the repeated interactions that continued solidifying the rapport. Additionally, children who perceived a higher social presence from the robot felt less relational uneasiness about their relationship with robots. These findings highlight the importance of robots' social presence and familiarity in promoting positive relationships in children-robot interaction.

Robots in Games

During the past two decades, robots have been increasingly deployed in games. Researchers use games to better understand human-robot interaction and, in turn, the inclusion of social robots during gameplay creates new opportunities for novel game experiences. The contributions from social robotics and games communities cover a large spectrum of research questions using a wide variety of scenarios. In this article, we present the first comprehensive survey of the deployment of robots in games. We organise our findings according to four dimensions: (1) the societal impact of robots in games, (2) games as a research platform, (3) social interactions in games, and (4) game scenarios and materials. We discuss some significant research achievements and potential research avenues for the gaming and social robotics communities. This article describes the state of the art of the research on robots in games in the hope that it will assist researchers to contextualise their work in the field, to adhere to best practices and to identify future areas of research and multidisciplinary collaboration.

Social robots as eating companions

Previous research shows that eating together (i.e., commensality) impacts food choice, time spent eating, and enjoyment. Conversely, eating alone is considered a possible cause of unhappiness. In this paper, we conceptually explore how interactive technology might allow for the creation of artificial commensal companions: embodied agents providing company to humans during meals (e.g., a person living in isolation due to health reasons). We operationalize this with the design of our commensal companion: a system based on the MyKeepon robot, paired with a Kinect sensor, able to track the human commensal's activity (i.e., food picking and intake) and able to perform predefined nonverbal behavior in response. In this preliminary study with 10 participants, we investigate whether this autonomous social robot-based system can positively establish an interaction that humans perceive and whether it can influence their food choices. In this study, the participants are asked to taste some chocolates with and without the presence of an artificial commensal companion. The participants are made to believe that the study targets the food experience, whilst the presence of a robot is accidental. Next, we analyze their food choices and feedback regarding the role and social presence of the artificial commensal during the task performance. We conclude the paper by discussing the lessons we learned about the first interactions we observed between a human and a social robot in a commensality setting and by proposing future steps and more complex applications for this novel kind of technology.

I vs. robot: Sociodigital self-comparisons in hybrid teams from a theoretical, empirical, and practical perspective

This article in the journal Gruppe. Interaktion. Organisation. (GIO) introduces sociodigital self-comparisons (SDSC) as individual evaluations of own abilities in comparison to the knowledge and skills of a cooperating digital actor in a group. SDSC provide a complementary perspective for the acceptance and evaluation of human-robot interaction (HRI). As social robots enter the workplace, in addition to human-human comparisons, digital actors also become objects of comparisons (i.e., I vs. robot). To date, SDSC have not been systematically reflected in HRI. Therefore, we introduce SDSC from a theoretical perspective and reflect its significance in social robot applications. First, we conceptualize SDSC based on psychological theories and research on social comparison. Second, we illustrate the concept of SDSC for HRI using empirical data from 80 hybrid teams (two human actors and one autonomous agent) who worked together in an interdependent computer-simulated team task. SDSC in favor of the autonomous agent corresponded to functional (e.g., robot trust, or team efficacy) and dysfunctional (e.g., job threat) team-relevant variables, highlighting the two-sidedness of SDSC in hybrid teams. Third, we outline the (practical) potential of SDSC for social robots in the field and the lab.

British Children’s and Adults’ Perceptions of Robots

Robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) systems are quickly becoming a familiar part of different aspects of everyday life. We know very little about how children and adults perceive the abilities of different robots and whether these ascriptions are associated with a willingness to interact with a robot. In the current study, we asked British children aged 4–13 years and British adults to complete an online experiment. Participants were asked to describe what a robot looks like, give their preference for various types of robots (a social robot, a machine-like robot, and a human-like robot), and answer whether they were willing to engage in different activities with the different robots. Results showed that younger children (4 to 8 years old) are more willing to engage with robots compared to older children (9 to 13 years) and adults. Specifically, younger children were more likely to see robots as kind compared to older children and adults. Younger children were also more likely to rate the social robot as helpful compared to older children and adults. This is also the first study to examine preferences for robots engaging in religious activities, and results show that British adults prefer humans over robots to pray for them but such biases may not be generally applicable to children. These results provide new insight into how children and adults in the United Kingdom accept the presence and function of robots.

Robo Ludens

The use of games as vehicles to study human-robot interaction (HRI) has been established as a suitable solution to create more realistic and naturalistic opportunities to investigate human behavior. In particular, multiplayer games that involve at least two human players and one or more robots have raised the attention of the research community. This article proposes a scoping review to qualitatively examine the literature on the use of multiplayer games in HRI scenarios employing embodied robots aiming to find experimental patterns and common game design elements. We find that researchers have been using multiplayer games in a wide variety of applications in HRI, including training, entertainment and education, allowing robots to take different roles. Moreover, robots have included different capabilities and sensing technologies, and elements such as external screens or motion controllers were used to foster gameplay. Based on our findings, we propose a design taxonomy called Robo Ludens, which identifies HRI elements and game design fundamentals and classifies important components used in multiplayer HRI scenarios. The Robo Ludens taxonomy covers considerations from a robot-oriented perspective as well as game design aspects to provide a comprehensive list of elements that can foster gameplay and bring enjoyable experiences in HRI scenarios.

Hurry Up, We Need to Find the Key! How Regulatory Focus Design Affects Children's Trust in a Social Robot

In educational scenarios involving social robots, understanding the way robot behaviors affect children's motivation to achieve their learning goals is of vital importance. It is crucial for the formation of a trust relationship between the child and the robot so that the robot can effectively fulfill its role as a learning companion. In this study, we investigate the effect of a regulatory focus design scenario on the way children interact with a social robot. Regulatory focus theory is a type of self-regulation that involves specific strategies in pursuit of goals. It provides insights into how a person achieves a particular goal, either through a strategy focused on "promotion" that aims to achieve positive outcomes or through one focused on "prevention" that aims to avoid negative outcomes. In a user study, 69 children (7-9 years old) played a regulatory focus design goal-oriented collaborative game with the EMYS robot. We assessed children's perception of likability and competence and their trust in the robot, as well as their willingness to follow the robot's suggestions when pursuing a goal. Results showed that children perceived the prevention-focused robot as being more likable than the promotion-focused robot. We observed that a regulatory focus design did not directly affect trust. However, the perception of likability and competence was positively correlated with children's trust but negatively correlated with children's acceptance of the robot's suggestions.

A Meta-analysis on Children’s Trust in Social Robots

Although research on children’s trust in social robots is increasingly growing in popularity, a systematic understanding of the factors which influence children’s trust in robots is lacking. In addition, meta-analyses in child–robot-interaction (cHRI) have yet to be popularly adopted as a method for synthesising results. We therefore conducted a meta-analysis aimed at identifying factors influencing children’s trust in robots. We constructed four meta-analytic models based on 20 identified studies, drawn from an initial pool of 414 papers, as a means of investigating the effect of robot embodiment and behaviour on both social and competency trust. Children’s pro-social attitudes towards social robots were also explored. There was tentative evidence to suggest that more human-like attributes lead to less competency trust in robots. In addition, we found a trend towards the type of measure that was used (subjective or objective) influencing the direction of effects for social trust. The meta-analysis also revealed a tendency towards under-powered designs, as well as variation in the methods and measures used to define trust. Nonetheless, we demonstrate that it is still possible to perform rigorous analyses despite these challenges. We also provide concrete methodological recommendations for future research, such as simplifying experimental designs, conducting a priori power analyses and clearer statistical reporting.

Social Robots on a Global Stage: Establishing a Role for Culture During Human–Robot Interaction

Robotic agents designed to assist people across a variety of social and service settings are becoming increasingly prevalent across the world. Here we synthesise two decades of empirical evidence from human–robot interaction (HRI) research to focus on cultural influences on expectations towards and responses to social robots, as well as the utility of robots displaying culturally specific social cues for improving human engagement. Findings suggest complex and intricate relationships between culture and human cognition in the context of HRI. The studies reviewed here transcend the often-studied and prototypical east–west dichotomy of cultures, and explore how people’s perceptions of robots are informed by their national culture as well as their experiences with robots. Many of the findings presented in this review raise intriguing questions concerning future directions for robotics designers and cultural psychologists, in terms of conceptualising and delivering culturally sensitive robots. We point out that such development is currently limited by heterogenous methods and low statistical power, which contribute to a concerning lack of generalisability. We also propose several avenues through which future work may begin to address these shortcomings. In sum, we highlight the critical role of culture in mediating efforts to develop robots aligned with human users’ cultural backgrounds, and argue for further research into the role of culturally-informed robotic development in facilitating human–robot interaction.

Robotic transformative service research: deploying social robots for consumer well-being during COVID-19 and beyond

Purpose

Besides the direct physical health consequences, through social isolation COVID-19 affects a considerably larger share of consumers with deleterious effects for their psychological well-being. Two vulnerable consumer groups are particularly affected: older adults and children. The purpose of the underlying paper is to take a transformative research perspective on how social robots can be deployed for advancing the well-being of these vulnerable consumers and to spur robotic transformative service research (RTSR).

Design/methodology/approach

This paper follows a conceptual approach that integrates findings from various domains: service research, social robotics, social psychology and medicine.

Findings

Two key findings advanced in this paper are (1) a typology of robotic transformative service (i.e. entertainer, social enabler, mentor and friend) as a function of consumers' state of social isolation, well-being focus and robot capabilities and (2) a future research agenda for RTSR.

Practical implications

This paper guides service consumers and providers and robot developers in identifying and developing the most appropriate social robot type for advancing the well-being of vulnerable consumers in social isolation.

Originality/value

This study is the first to integrate social robotics and transformative service research by developing a typology of social robots as a guiding framework for assessing the status quo of transformative robotic service on the basis of which it advances a future research agenda for RTSR. It further complements the underdeveloped body of service research with a focus on eudaimonic consumer well-being.

Are Future Psychologists Willing to Accept and Use a Humanoid Robot in Their Practice? Italian and English Students' Perspective

Despite general scepticism from care professionals, social robotics research is providing evidence of successful application in education and rehabilitation in clinical psychology practice. In this article, we investigate the cultural influences of English and Italian psychology students in the perception of usefulness and intention to use a robot as an instrument for future clinical practice and, secondly, the modality of presentation of the robot by comparing oral vs. video presentation. To this end, we surveyed 158 Italian and British-English psychology students after an interactive demonstration using a humanoid robot to evaluate the social robot's acceptance and use. The Italians were positive, while the English were negative toward the perceived usefulness and intention to use the robot in psychological practice in the near future. However, most English and Italian respondents felt they did not have the necessary abilities to make good use of the robot. We concluded that it is necessary to provide psychology students with further knowledge and practical skills regarding social robotics, which could facilitate the adoption and use of this technology in clinical settings.

Child-Robot Relationship Formation: A Narrative Review of Empirical Research

This narrative review aimed to elucidate which robot-related characteristics predict relationship formation between typically-developing children and social robots in terms of closeness and trust. Moreover, we wanted to know to what extent relationship formation can be explained by children's experiential and cognitive states during interaction with a robot. We reviewed 86 journal articles and conference proceedings published between 2000 and 2017. In terms of predictors, robots' responsiveness and role, as well as strategic and emotional interaction between robot and child, increased closeness between the child and the robot. Findings about whether robot features predict children's trust in robots were inconsistent. In terms of children's experiential and cognitive states during interaction with a robot, robot characteristics and interaction styles were associated with two experiential states: engagement and enjoyment/liking. The literature hardly addressed the impact of experiential and cognitive states on closeness and trust. Comparisons of children's interactions with robots, adults, and objects showed that robots are perceived as neither animate nor inanimate, and that they are entities with whom children will likely form social relationships. Younger children experienced more enjoyment, were less sensitive to a robot's interaction style, and were more prone to anthropomorphic tendencies and effects than older children. Tailoring a robot's sex to that of a child mainly appealed to boys.

Robot swarms as an educational tool: The Thymio’s way

Robotics provides useful tools for educational purposes, allowing to engage students in learning within disparate domains, from computer science and artificial intelligence – traditionally the main domains for educational robotics – to general education, human and social sciences and arts. Robots can be used with different purposes, from being simple tools to be programmed with some specific behaviour, to being peers with whom to engage in a fruitful interaction for a collaborative learning purpose. In this sense, they can also foster learning of transversal skills such as communication and cooperation. In this article, we propose robot swarms as a novel educational tool to target exactly those transversal skills that are difficult to account otherwise. The usage of multiple robots interacting to solve a common problem can support the learning of concepts related to cooperation and collective actions and can make accessible notions about complex systems that are common in physical, biological, economic and social sciences. Additionally, the possibility to interact and participate in the collective behaviour displayed by the robot swarm can strongly increase the comprehension and engagement with the proposed concept. Motivated by this picture, we propose a roadmap for the utilization of swarm robotics for educational purposes, which is hinged on the Thymio robot, a simple but powerful educational robot that presents all the features required for swarm robotics experimentation. We propose two case studies and we substantiate the proposal with preliminary results from a demonstration of robot swarms performed during a recent robotics festival.

Emotional Empathy as a Mechanism of Synchronisation in Child-Robot Interaction

Simulating emotional experience, emotional empathy is the fundamental ingredient of interpersonal communication. In the speaker-listener scenario, the speaker is always a child, the listener is a human or a toy robot. Two groups of neurotypical children aged 6 years on average composed the population: one Japanese (n = 20) and one French (n = 20). Revealing potential similarities in communicative exchanges in both groups when in contact with a human or a toy robot, the results might signify that emotional empathy requires the implication of an automatic identification. In this sense, emotional empathy might be considered a broad idiosyncrasy, a kind of synchronisation, offering the mind a peculiar form of communication. Our findings seem to be consistent with the assumption that children's brains would be constructed to simulate the feelings of others in order to ensure interpersonal synchronisation.