Assessing the psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test: A study on a sample of Italian university students

Mild internet use is associated with epigenetic alterations of key neurotransmission genes in salivary DNA of young university students

The potentially problematic use of the Internet is a growing concern worldwide, which causes and consequences are not completely understood yet. The neurobiology of Internet addiction (IA) has attracted much attention in scientific research, which is now focusing on identifying measurable biological markers. Aim of this study was to investigate epigenetic and genetic regulation of oxytocin receptor (OXTR), dopamine transporter (DAT1) and serotonin transporter (SERT) genes using DNA obtained from saliva samples of young university students: the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) was administered to evaluate the potential existence and intensity of IA. Significant changes in DNA methylation levels at OXTR, DAT1 and SERT genes were observed in the 30 < IAT < 49 group (mild-risk internet users) compared to the IAT < 29 subjects (complete control of internet use) and IAT > 50 subjects (considered as moderately addicted). Moreover, epigenetic markers were significantly correlated, either directly (for OXTR and DAT1) or inversely (OXTR and DAT1 versus SERT), to the psychometric properties. Our data confirmed the association of OXTR, DAT1 and SERT genes in processes related to behavioural addictions and might be of relevance to suggest possible biological predictors of altered behaviours and the eventual vulnerability to develop an IA. Different other genetic pathways have been suggested to play a role in IA and research is ongoing to better define them, in order to help in the early diagnosis as well as in the development of new potential treatments.

Bored with boredom? Trait boredom predicts internet addiction through the mediating role of attentional bias toward social networks

Internet addiction is an emerging issue, impacting people's psychosocial functioning and well-being. However, the prevalence and the mechanisms underlying internet misuse are largely unknown. As with other behavioral addiction disorders, the increase and persistence of internet addiction may be favored by negative affect such as boredom. In this study, we examined the role of boredom susceptibility, as a personality trait, in predicting the risk of internet addiction. Furthermore, we analyzed the attentional mechanisms that may exacerbate dysfunctional internet behaviors. Specifically, we assessed the mediating role of attentional bias toward social media cues on the relation between boredom susceptibility and internet addiction. Sixty-nine young adults were administered a dot-probe task assessing internet-related attentional bias (AB) and questionnaires measuring internet addiction (IAT) and boredom susceptibility (BS-BSSS). Correlation and t-test analyses confirmed that the tendency to experience boredom and selective attention toward social network information was related to internet addiction. Furthermore, the mediation model indicated that AB fully explains the link between BS-BSSS and IAT. The study highlighted the crucial role of selective attentional processing behind internet addiction. The current results are useful for both researchers and clinicians as they suggest that intervention programs for internet addiction should include strategies to cope with dysfunctional cognitive processes.

The Moderator Effect of Subthreshold Autistic Traits on the Relationship between Quality of Life and Internet Addiction

People with sub-threshold autistic traits (SATs) are more prone to develop addictive behaviors such the ones linked to Internet abuse. The restrictions for anti-COVID-19 distancing measures encourage social isolation and, consequently, increase screen time, which may lead to Internet addiction (IA). However, a better quality of life (QoL) may have function as a protective factor against the development of IA. This study wanted to investigate the relation between SATs, QoL, and the overuse of the Internet in a group of 141 university students in the North of Italy. Participants completed a battery of tests. Results suggest that QoL is a predictive factor of IA and that the relationship between QoL and IA is significantly moderated by SATs. This could mean that SATs might represent a risk factor for IA, even when people have a better quality of life. Differences between female and male students are discussed, as well as possible implications for practice.

Screen use and internet addiction among parents of young children: A nationwide Canadian cross-sectional survey

Objectives

To establish the factorial structure and internal consistency of the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) in parents, the level and correlates of problematic internet use, and patterns and types of screen use.

Study design

Data were collected through an online questionnaire about preconception health among Canadian women and men with ≥1 child. The questionnaire included the IAT and questions about time spent on screens by device type, use of screens during meals and in the bedroom, and perceptions of overuse. Factor analysis was completed to determine the factorial structure of the IAT, with multivariable linear regression used to determine correlates of the IAT.

Results

The sample included 1,156 respondents (mean age: 34.3 years; 83.1% female). The IAT had two factors: “impairment in time management” and “impairment in socio-emotional functioning” of which respondents had more impairment in time management than socio-emotional functioning. Based on the original IAT, 19.4% of respondents would be classified as having a mild internet use problem with 3.0% having a moderate or severe issue. In the multivariable model, perceived stress (b = .28, SE = .05, p < .001) and depressive symptoms (b = .24, SE = .10, p = .017) were associated with higher IAT scores. Handheld mobile devices were the most common type of screen used (mean = 3 hours/day) followed by watching television (mean = 2 hours/day).

Conclusion

Parents spent a significant portion of their time each day using screens, particularly handheld mobile devices. The disruption caused by mobile devices may hinder opportunities for positive parent-child interactions, demonstrating the need for resources to support parents ever-growing use of technologies.

The Internet addiction test: Psychometric properties, socio-demographic risk factors and addictive co-morbidities in a large adult sample

The Internet Addiction Test (IAT) (Young, 1998) is one of the most utilized diagnostic instruments to evaluate internet addiction. Despite the wide use of IAT in research and clinical settings, there is lack of an empirical validation of this scale among a largescale adult population. The present study aimed to: (1) investigate the psychometric properties of a Hebrew version of the IAT among large-scale Israeli adult sample. (2) Assess the socio-demographic characteristics of individuals who suffer from IA. (3) Assess the co-morbidity of IA in relation to substance and behavioral addictions. A cross sectional study was conducted, by constructing a representative sample (N = 4035) of the Jewish adult (18-70 y/o, M = 40.5, SD = 14.5) population in Israel. Participants responded an online survey, that measured IAT, socio-demographic characteristics, substance and behavioral addictions. Results showed that two-factor model (Emotional and Cognitive Preoccupation with the Internet and Loss of Control and Interference with Daily Life) has good psychometric properties and fits the data well. Young age, not being married (Risk Ratio [RR] = 1.98, 95% CI [1.51-2.63]), and having a low socio-economic status (RR = 1.41, 95% CI [1.05-1.90]) were found to be associated with IA. Drug (RR = 4.50, 95% CI [2.89-7.01]) and alcohol (RR = 3.54, 95% CI [1.50-5.42]) use disorders were associated with IA. High co-morbidity between behavioral addictions and IA was also found (RR = 15.24, 95% CI [11.17-20.78]). Overall, results show that the Hebrew version of the IAT is a valid and reliable instrument, and provide a comprehensive picture of IA prevalence and profile in adult Israeli sample.

The role of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the treatment of behavioral addictions: Two case reports and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Several behaviors, besides consumption of psychoactive substances, produce short-term reward that may lead to persistent aberrant behavior despite adverse consequences. Growing evidence suggests that these behaviors warrant consideration as nonsubstance or "behavioral" addictions, such as pathological gambling, internet gaming disorder and internet addiction.

CASE PRESENTATION

Here, we report two cases of behavioral addictions (BA), compulsive sexual behavior disorder for online porn use and internet gaming disorder. A 57-years-old male referred a loss of control over his online pornography use, started 15 years before, while a 21-years-old male university student reported an excessive online gaming activity undermining his academic productivity and social life. Both patients underwent a high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) protocol over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (l-DLPFC) in a multidisciplinary therapeutic setting. A decrease of addictive symptoms and an improvement of executive control were observed in both cases.

DISCUSSION

Starting from these clinical observations, we provide a systematic review of the literature suggesting that BAs share similar neurobiological mechanisms to those underlying substance use disorders (SUD). Moreover, we discuss whether neurocircuit-based interventions, such as rTMS, might represent a potential effective treatment for BAs.

Autism, Problematic Internet Use and Gaming Disorder: A Systematic Review

The present study investigated the association between autism and problematic internet use (PIU) and gaming disorder (GD). A systematic literature search was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. A total of 2286 publications were screened, and 21 were deemed eligible for inclusion in the review. The majority of the studies found positive associations between PIU and subclinical autistic-like traits with weak and moderate effect sizes and between PIU and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) with varying effect sizes. Additionally, individuals with ASD were more likely to exhibit symptoms of GD with moderate and strong effect sizes. Future research would benefit from high-quality studies examining GD and PIU at a clinical level and their relationship with both clinical and subclinical autism.

Internet Addiction among Young Adult University Students: The Complex Interplay between Family Functioning, Impulsivity, Depression, and Anxiety

International research has underlined that both interpersonal, self-regulation, and comorbid variables can lead to a higher risk of developing internet addiction (IA) among young adults. To date, no studies have explored the interplay between young adults’ family functioning, impulsivity, and psychopathological difficulties. In a community sample of 244 young adult university students, this study aims to assess the relationship between young adults’ IA and young adults’ gender, the perception of their family functioning, impulsivity level, and depressive and anxiety symptoms, considering the possible interplay between these variables. The presence and the severity of IA were addressed through the Internet Addiction Test (IAT). Moreover, young adults filled out self-reporting questionnaires, assessing their perception of family functioning and their impulsivity levels and psychopathological symptoms. Results showed no significant association between the youth’s gender and IA. However, moderately addicted young adults were more likely to report poorer quality of family affective involvement and higher attentional impulsivity and depressive problems than other groups. Moreover, young adults’ attentional impulsivity mediated the relationship between family affective involvement and IA. This study provides new evidence on the complex interaction between individuals and interpersonal risk factors involved in IA among young adults, with important implications for the planning of intervention treatments.

Assessing the Psychometric Properties of the Internet Addiction Test in Peruvian University Students

The use of the Internet has been gradually and unstoppably gaining ground in all areas of life, from recreational activities to how social relations are established. However, the existence of clinical cases indicates that the addictive use of the Internet is a problem that seriously affects some people. Among the instruments that measure this construct, the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) stands out. However, instrumental studies of this test are scarce in Latin America. The present study sought to analyze the psychometric properties of the IAT in a sample of 227 Peruvian undergraduate university students. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to provide validity evidence based on the internal structure, and evidence based on the relationship with other variables was also provided. Reliability was estimated through the ordinal alpha coefficient. The results indicated that the IAT adequately fits a bifactor model (with two specific factors, time/control and stress/compensate), obtaining good levels of reliability. Additionally, the IAT scores correlate significantly with the average number of hours per day on the internet and social skills. The results lead to the conclusion that the scores in the IAT have evidence of validity and reliability for its use.

Mexican and Spanish university students' Internet addiction and academic procrastination: Correlation and potential factors

The 21^st-century problem of Internet addiction is increasing globally, but especially among university students. Not surprisingly, then, problematic Internet use is associated with university students’ academic procrastination. Because studies are scarce in Mexico and Spain has one of the highest rates of Internet addiction in Europe, this paper (i) analyzed the presence and degree of Internet addiction among university students in Mexico and Spain, (ii) determined potential sociodemographic factors influencing Internet addiction, and (iii) established the type of correlation between Internet addiction and academic procrastination. The cross-sectional study design used an online questionnaire to measure problematic Internet use and academic procrastination through convenience sampling at one university in Mexico and one in Spain. The questionnaire contained three sections: participants’ sociodemographic data, the Internet Addiction Test, and the Academic Procrastination Scale. The final sample comprised 758 university students, 387 from Mexico, and 371 from Spain, aged from 18 to 35 (M = 20.08, SD = 3.16). Results revealed similar prevalence rates of problematic and daily Internet use for leisure, potentially influencing Internet addiction in all three models (i.e., Mexico, Spain, and Total). Additionally, significant positive correlation was revealed between problematic Internet use and academic procrastination (p < .001). Finally, findings showed relevant data on Internet addiction’s prevalence in Mexican and Spanish university contexts, along with its influential sociodemographic factors.

The Potential Role of the Early Maladaptive Schema in Behavioral Addictions Among Late Adolescents and Young Adults

Background

Behavioral addiction (BA) is a recent concept in psychiatry. Few studies have investigated the relationship between BA and early maladaptive schemas (EMSs). EMS is the core of Schema Therapy (ST). According to the ST model, psychiatric disorders result from the development of EMSs in response to unmet emotional needs in childhood. Bach et al. (2018) grouped the 18 EMSs into four domains: (1) disconnection and rejection; (2) impaired autonomy and performance; (3) excessive responsibility and standards; and (4) impaired limits. This study aims to assess the possible association of the most frequent BAs with EMSs in a large group of late adolescents and young adults and to evaluate their self-perceived quality of life (QoL).

Methods

A battery of psychological tests assessing food addiction (FA), gambling disorder (GD), internet addiction (IA), and QoL was administered to 1,075 late adolescents and young adults (N = 637; 59.3% women). A forward-stepwise logistic regression model was run to identify which variables were associated with BAs.

Results

Food addiction was more frequent among women and GD among men, while IA was equally distributed. Regarding the EMSs, participants with FA or IA showed significantly higher scores on all four-schema domains, whereas those with GD exhibited higher scores on impaired autonomy and performance and impaired limits. Besides, average scores of all domains increased with the association of two or more comorbid BAs. Self-perceived QoL was lower for participants with FA and IA, but not for those with GD; the presence of comorbid BAs was associated with lower Physical Component Summary (PCS) and Mental Component Summary (MCS) scores. Finally, specific EMS domains and demographic variables were associated with each BA.

Conclusion

Late adolescents and young adults with FA or IA have a lower perception of their mental and physical health. The most striking result is that FA appears to be associated with the disconnection and rejection schema domain, IA with all the schema domains (except for impaired autonomy and performance), and GD with impaired autonomy and performance schema domain. In conclusion, our findings suggest that EMS should be systematically assessed during psychotherapy of patients with BAs.

Assessing the Psychometric Properties of the Internet Abusive Use Questionnaire in Italian University Students

Abstract. The risks emanating from the abusive use of the Internet are on the rise, especially among young adults causing psychological problems in their social and personal lifestyles. To date, there are only two validated measures in the Italian language to measure the risk of Internet addiction. This study served to validate an Italian version of the Internet Abusive Use Questionnaire (IAUQ-I) via a translation-back-translation process. A sample of 289 Italian university students participated in the study (73.70% females). The results of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis established the unidimensional factorial structure of the scale. Validity and reliability analyses indicated adequate results concerning the psychometric properties of the Italian IAUQ-I. We also found an association between IAUQ-I and self-esteem, and personality traits. This study shows that the IAUQ-I represents a valid instrument for measuring the abusive use of the Internet and could be used not only for further epidemiological studies, but also to inform practitioners working with persons addicted to technology.

A psychometric analysis of the Caring Assessment Tool version V

AIM

The aim of this study was to examine the factor structure and construct validity of the Caring Assessment Tool version V (CAT-V) for patients in Australian hospitals.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of CAT-V surveys from the Australian Nursing Outcomes Collaborative (AUSNOC) data set was used. The CAT was originally developed in the United States of America.

METHODS

The 27-item CAT-V was administered to patients prior to discharge from eight wards in three Australian hospitals in 2016. The psychometric properties of the CAT were evaluated using item analysis and exploratory factor analyses.

RESULTS

Item analysis of surveys from 476 participants showed high levels of perceived caring behaviours and actions. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factor structure consisting of: Nurse-patient communication; and Feeling cared for. The CAT-V is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring patients' perceptions of the attitudes and actions of nurses in Australia.

Psychometric Properties and Structures of the IAT, GPIUS and GAS Scales: A Bifactor Approach

This study applied a bifactor approach to investigate the structures and simultaneously compare the psychometric properties of three popular self-report internet addiction (IA) instruments. A bifactor confirmatory factor analysis was used to address the structures of the three scales, while the bifactor multidimensional item response model was employed to compare the psychometric properties of the three scales. Results of bifactor confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the bifactor structures were suitable for the three scales. These corresponding bifactor structures were used in the subsequent bifactor multidimensional item response theory (MIRT) analysis. Results of the bifactor MIRT showed that: three instruments of IA performed well as a whole; the Generalised Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) and Internet Addiction Test (IAT) provided more test information and had less standard error of measurement, which ranged from −3 to −1 standard deviations of theta or IA severity; the Game Addiction Scale (GAS) performed better than the other two scales in that it can provide more test information in the large area of IA severity (from −1 to +3 SDs). These suggest that the GPIUS and IAT may be the best choice for epidemiological IA studies and for measuring those with lower IA severity. Meanwhile, the GAS may be a good choice when we recruit those with various levels of IA severity.

Psychometric Properties of the Internet Addiction Test: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This article performs a systemic review of psychometric properties of Internet Addiction Test (IAT)-the most widely used tool for assessing Internet addiction in clinic and research field. Studies measuring psychometric properties of IAT (original version) were searched through MEDLINE, The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PsycINFO, and Embase. A total of 25 studies including 18,421 subjects were reviewed in our study. Based on meta-analysis for internal consistency, the pooled Cronbach's alpha coefficient from college/university students with a single department subgroup was 0.90 (95percent confidence interval [CI], 0.89-0.91), and that from middle-/high-school students (older than 15 years) subgroup was 0.93 (95 percent CI, 0.92-0.93). According to test-retest analysis, the pooled Spearman's correlation coefficient from college/university students with a single department subgroup was high at 0.83 (95 percent CI, 0.81-0.85), along with low publication bias. Convergent validity showed correlation coefficients of 0.62-0.84, as compared with major tools. For construct validity, the number of factors is believed to be 1-2, only considering studies that followed the guidelines. IAT appears to have acceptable internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity in specific groups. To verify these values, well-designed evidence-based studies assessing psychometric properties of IAT across diverse populations are warranted.

The Mediational Role of Coping Strategies in the Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Risk of Internet Addiction

The aim of the present study is to explore, through a mediation model, the relationship among self-esteem, coping strategies, and the risk of Internet addiction in a sample of 300 Italian university students. We submitted the data to a descriptive, mediational comparison between variables (t-test), and correlational statistical analyses. The results confirmed the effect of self-esteem on the risk of Internet addiction. However, we found that the introduction of coping strategies as a mediator gives rise to partial mediation. A low level of self-esteem is a predictor of avoidance-oriented coping that, in turn, affects the risk of Internet addiction.

Psychometric properties of a Thai version internet addiction test

Objective

The aim was to assess the reliability and validity of a Thai version internet addiction test.

Results

Cronbach’s alpha for the Thai version of the internet addiction test was 0.89. A three-factor model showed the best fit with the data for the whole sample, whereas the hypothesized six-factor model, as well as a unidimensional model of the internet addiction test, failed to demonstrate acceptable fit with the data. Three factors, namely functional impairment, withdrawal symptoms and loss of control, exhibited Cronbach’s alphas of 0.81, 0.81, and 0.70, respectively. Item 4, ‘to form new relationships with online users’, yielded the lowest loading coefficient of all items. Positive correlations between the internet addiction test and UCLA loneliness scores were found. The Thai version of the internet addiction test was considered reliable and valid, and has sufficient unidimensionality to calculate for total score in screening for excessive internet use.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-018-3187-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Associations among Different Internet Access Time, Gender and Cyberbullying Behaviors in Taiwan's Adolescents

With the increasing convenience of social networking sites and their interconnectedness with human interaction, verbal and image bullying have turned digital, making cyberbullying a new form of bullying attracting the attention of researchers, social workers, and schools. This study focuses on the status quo of attitude toward cyberbullying and cyberbullying behavior, explores associations of attitude toward behavior on cyberbullying behavior in gender and different internet access times. In a cross-sectional survey, adolescents were surveyed through self-report questionnaires, 13,864 respondents were received among 150 high schools in Taiwan. Statistical analyses were performed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The study revealed that attitude toward cyberbullying has a direct effect on cyberbullying behavior; among the greatest direct impact were when students use the Internet during the time frame 10:00–14:00. Parents and schoolteachers pay special attention to students using the Internet during this time frame 10:00–14:00 and give guidance, express care, and help those being bullied to communicate and use the Internet in a correct manner. Among genders, male student attitude toward behavior has a greater effect than those of female students. Both male and female students know what cyberbullying is and have witnessed, heard of, or personally encountered cyberbullying behavior. We recommend students talk to parents or teachers or other people who care to reduce the negative effects of cyberbullying. We hopeful that the conceptualization model presented in this study serves as an activator for researches on attitude toward cyberbullying and cyberbullying behavior, and serves a guide and a call to attract more researches in this area.