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Hirama Y, Onishi S, Shibata R, Ishida H, Mori T, Ota N. Antiviral Effect of Propylene Glycol against Envelope Viruses in Spray and Volatilized Forms. Viruses 2023; 15:1421. [PMID: 37515109 PMCID: PMC10385749 DOI: 10.3390/v15071421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is highly contagious and continues to spread worldwide. To avoid the spread of infection, it is important to control its transmission routes. However, as methods to prevent airborne infections are lacking, people are forced to take measures such as keeping distance from others or wearing masks. Here, we evaluate the antiviral activity of propylene glycol (PG), which is safe, odorless, and volatile. PG showed pronounced antiviral activity against the influenza virus (IAV) at concentrations above 55% in the liquid phase. Given its IAV inactivation mechanism, which involves increasing the fluidity of the viral membrane, PG is expected to have a broad effect on enveloped viruses. PG showed antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2. We also developed a system to evaluate the antiviral effect of PG in spray and volatilized forms. PG was found to be effective against aerosol IAV in both forms; the effective PG concentration against IAV in the vapor phase was 87 ppmv (0.27 mg/L). These results demonstrate that PG is an effective means for viral inactivation in various situations for infection control. This technology is expected to control the spread of current and future infectious diseases capable of causing outbreaks and pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yui Hirama
- Biological Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-machi, Haga-gun, Tokyo 321-3497, Japan
| | - Shintaro Onishi
- Biological Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-machi, Haga-gun, Tokyo 321-3497, Japan
| | - Ryunosuke Shibata
- Sensory Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2-1-3 Bunka, Sumida-ku, Tokyo 131-8501, Japan
| | - Hirohiko Ishida
- Sensory Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2-1-3 Bunka, Sumida-ku, Tokyo 131-8501, Japan
| | - Takuya Mori
- Biological Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-machi, Haga-gun, Tokyo 321-3497, Japan
| | - Noriyasu Ota
- Biological Science Research, Kao Corporation, 2606 Akabane, Ichikai-machi, Haga-gun, Tokyo 321-3497, Japan
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Souza TH, Sarmento-Neto JF, Souza SO, Raposo BL, Silva BP, Borges CP, Santos BS, Cabral Filho PE, Rebouças JS, Fontes A. Advances on antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation mediated by Zn(II) porphyrins. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C: PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2021.100454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Slesarchuk NA, Khvatov EV, Chistov AA, Proskurin GV, Nikitin TD, Lazarevich AI, Ulanovskaya AA, Ulashchik EA, Orlov AA, Jegorov AV, Ustinov AV, Tyurin AP, Shmanai VV, Ishmukhametov AA, Korshun VA, Osolodkin DI, Kozlovskaya LI, Aralov AV. Simplistic perylene-related compounds as inhibitors of tick-borne encephalitis virus reproduction. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127100. [PMID: 32199731 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Rigid amphipathic fusion inhibitors are potent broad-spectrum antivirals based on the perylene scaffold, usually decorated with a hydrophilic group linked via ethynyl or triazole. We have sequentially simplified these structures by removing sugar moiety, then converting uridine to aniline, then moving to perylenylthiophenecarboxylic acids and to perylenylcarboxylic acid. All these polyaromatic compounds, as well as antibiotic heliomycin, still showed pronounced activity against tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) with limited toxicity in porcine embryo kidney (PEK) cell line. 5-(Perylen-3-yl)-2-thiophenecarboxylic acid (5a) showed the highest antiviral activity with 50% effective concentration of approx. 1.6 nM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikita A Slesarchuk
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 117312, Russia
| | - Evgeny V Khvatov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; FSBSI «Chumakov FSC R&D IBP RAS», Moscow 108819, Russia
| | - Alexey A Chistov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 117312, Russia
| | - Gleb V Proskurin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Timofei D Nikitin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Anastasiya I Lazarevich
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology, Moscow 125047, Russia
| | - Angelina A Ulanovskaya
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology, Moscow 125047, Russia
| | | | | | - Artjom V Jegorov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Alexey V Ustinov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 117312, Russia.
| | - Anton P Tyurin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 117312, Russia; Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, Moscow 119021, Russia
| | - Vadim V Shmanai
- Institute of Physico-Organic Chemistry, Minsk 220072, Belarus
| | - Aydar A Ishmukhametov
- FSBSI «Chumakov FSC R&D IBP RAS», Moscow 108819, Russia; Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Vladimir A Korshun
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia; Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 117312, Russia; Gause Institute of New Antibiotics, Moscow 119021, Russia
| | - Dmitry I Osolodkin
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; FSBSI «Chumakov FSC R&D IBP RAS», Moscow 108819, Russia; Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119991, Russia.
| | - Liubov I Kozlovskaya
- FSBSI «Chumakov FSC R&D IBP RAS», Moscow 108819, Russia; Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Andrey V Aralov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, Moscow 117997, Russia
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Proskurin GV, Orlov AA, Brylev VA, Kozlovskaya LI, Chistov AA, Karganova GG, Palyulin VA, Osolodkin DI, Korshun VA, Aralov AV. 3′-O-Substituted 5-(perylen-3-ylethynyl)-2′-deoxyuridines as tick-borne encephalitis virus reproduction inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 155:77-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Gomes B, Gonçalves S, Disalvo A, Hollmann A, Santos NC. Effect of 25-hydroxycholesterol in viral membrane fusion: Insights on HIV inhibition. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2018; 1860:1171-1178. [PMID: 29408450 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Recently, it was demonstrated that 25-hydroxycholesterol (25HC), an oxidized cholesterol derivative, inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) entry into its target cells. However, the mechanisms involved in this action have not yet been established. The aim of this work was to study the effects of 25HC in biomembrane model systems and at the level of HIV fusion peptide (HIV-FP). Integration of different biophysical approaches was made in the context of HIV fusion process, to clarify the changes at membrane level due to the presence of 25HC that result in the suppressing of viral infection. Lipid vesicles mimicking mammalian and HIV membranes were used on spectroscopy assays and lipid monolayers in surface pressure studies. Peptide-induced lipid mixing assays were performed by Förster resonance energy transfer to calculate fusion efficiency. Liposome fusion is reduced by 50% in the presence of 25HC, comparatively to cholesterol. HIV-FP conformation was assessed by infrared assays and it relies on sterol nature. Anisotropy, surface pressure and dipole potential assays indicate that the conversion of cholesterol in 25HC leads to a loss of the cholesterol modulating effect on the membrane. With different biophysical techniques, we show that 25HC affects the membrane fusion process through the modification of lipid membrane properties, and by direct alterations on HIV-FP structure. The present data support a broad antiviral activity for 25HC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Gomes
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sónia Gonçalves
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Anibal Disalvo
- Laboratory of Biointerfaces and Biomimetic Systems, CITSE, University of Santiago del Estero, -CONICET, 4200 Santiago del Estero, Argentina
| | - Axel Hollmann
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal; Laboratory of Biointerfaces and Biomimetic Systems, CITSE, University of Santiago del Estero, -CONICET, 4200 Santiago del Estero, Argentina; Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Basic and Applied Microbiology, University of Quilmes, B1876BXD Bernal, Argentina
| | - Nuno C Santos
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal.
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Mechanisms of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Inactivation by Protoporphyrin IX, Zinc-Protoporphyrin IX, and Mesoporphyrin IX. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.00053-17. [PMID: 28348154 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00053-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus resistance to antiviral therapies is an increasing concern that makes the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs urgent. Targeting of the viral envelope, a component shared by a large number of viruses, emerges as a promising strategy to overcome this problem. Natural and synthetic porphyrins are good candidates for antiviral development due to their relative hydrophobicity and pro-oxidant character. In the present work, we characterized the antiviral activities of protoprophyrin IX (PPIX), Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZnPPIX), and mesoporphyrin IX (MPIX) against vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and evaluated the mechanisms involved in this activity. Treatment of VSV with PPIX, ZnPPIX, and MPIX promoted dose-dependent virus inactivation, which was potentiated by porphyrin photoactivation. All three porphyrins inserted into lipid vesicles and disturbed the viral membrane organization. In addition, the porphyrins also affected viral proteins, inducing VSV glycoprotein cross-linking, which was enhanced by porphyrin photoactivation. Virus incubation with sodium azide and α-tocopherol partially protected VSV from inactivation by porphyrins, suggesting that singlet oxygen (1O2) was the main reactive oxygen species produced by photoactivation of these molecules. Furthermore, 1O2 was detected by 9,10-dimethylanthracene oxidation in photoactivated porphyrin samples, reinforcing this hypothesis. These results reveal the potential therapeutic application of PPIX, ZnPPIX, and MPIX as good models for broad antiviral drug design.
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Orlov AA, Chistov AA, Kozlovskaya LI, Ustinov AV, Korshun VA, Karganova GG, Osolodkin DI. Rigid amphipathic nucleosides suppress reproduction of the tick-borne encephalitis virus. MEDCHEMCOMM 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5md00538h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Rigid amphipathic fusion inhibitors (RAFIs), 5-arylethynyl uracil nucleosides with bulky aryl groups, appeared to have considerable activity against tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey A. Orlov
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides
- 142782 Moscow
- Russia
- Department of Chemistry
- Lomonosov Moscow State University
| | - Alexey A. Chistov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry
- 117997 Moscow
- Russia
| | | | - Alexey V. Ustinov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry
- 117997 Moscow
- Russia
| | | | - Galina G. Karganova
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides
- 142782 Moscow
- Russia
| | - Dmitry I. Osolodkin
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides
- 142782 Moscow
- Russia
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Abstract
Effective antivirals have been developed against specific viruses, such as HIV, Hepatitis C virus and influenza virus. This 'one bug-one drug' approach to antiviral drug development can be successful, but it may be inadequate for responding to an increasing diversity of viruses that cause significant diseases in humans. The majority of viral pathogens that cause emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases are membrane-enveloped viruses, which require the fusion of viral and cell membranes for virus entry. Therefore, antivirals that target the membrane fusion process represent new paradigms for broad-spectrum antiviral discovery. In this Review, we discuss the mechanisms responsible for the fusion between virus and cell membranes and explore how broad-spectrum antivirals target this process to prevent virus entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Vigant
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, #1124, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Nuno C Santos
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Benhur Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, #1124, New York, New York 10029, USA
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Singlet oxygen effects on lipid membranes: implications for the mechanism of action of broad-spectrum viral fusion inhibitors. Biochem J 2014; 459:161-70. [PMID: 24456301 DOI: 10.1042/bj20131058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It was reported recently that a new aryl methyldiene rhodanine derivative, LJ001, and oxazolidine-2,4-dithione, JL103, act on the viral membrane, inhibiting its fusion with a target cell membrane. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interactions of these two active compounds and an inactive analogue used as a negative control, LJ025, with biological membrane models, in order to clarify the mechanism of action at the molecular level of these new broad-spectrum enveloped virus entry inhibitors. Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to quantify the partition and determine the location of the molecules on membranes. The ability of the compounds to produce reactive oxygen molecules in the membrane was tested using 9,10-dimethylanthracene, which reacts selectively with singlet oxygen (1O2). Changes in the lipid packing and fluidity of membranes were assessed by fluorescence anisotropy and generalized polarization measurements. Finally, the ability to inhibit membrane fusion was evaluated using FRET. Our results indicate that 1O2 production by LJ001 and JL103 is able to induce several changes on membrane properties, specially related to a decrease in its fluidity, concomitant with an increase in the order of the polar headgroup region, resulting in an inhibition of the membrane fusion necessary for cell infection.
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The rigid amphipathic fusion inhibitor dUY11 acts through photosensitization of viruses. J Virol 2013; 88:1849-53. [PMID: 24284320 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02907-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rigid amphipathic fusion inhibitors (RAFIs) are lipophilic inverted-cone-shaped molecules thought to antagonize the membrane curvature transitions that occur during virus-cell fusion and are broad-spectrum antivirals against enveloped viruses (Broad-SAVE). Here, we show that RAFIs act like membrane-binding photosensitizers: their antiviral effect is dependent on light and the generation of singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)), similar to the mechanistic paradigm established for LJ001, a chemically unrelated class of Broad-SAVE. Photosensitization of viral membranes is a common mechanism that underlies these Broad-SAVE.
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Vigant F, Lee J, Hollmann A, Tanner LB, Akyol Ataman Z, Yun T, Shui G, Aguilar HC, Zhang D, Meriwether D, Roman-Sosa G, Robinson LR, Juelich TL, Buczkowski H, Chou S, Castanho MARB, Wolf MC, Smith JK, Banyard A, Kielian M, Reddy S, Wenk MR, Selke M, Santos NC, Freiberg AN, Jung ME, Lee B. A mechanistic paradigm for broad-spectrum antivirals that target virus-cell fusion. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003297. [PMID: 23637597 PMCID: PMC3630091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
LJ001 is a lipophilic thiazolidine derivative that inhibits the entry of numerous enveloped viruses at non-cytotoxic concentrations (IC50≤0.5 µM), and was posited to exploit the physiological difference between static viral membranes and biogenic cellular membranes. We now report on the molecular mechanism that results in LJ001's specific inhibition of virus-cell fusion. The antiviral activity of LJ001 was light-dependent, required the presence of molecular oxygen, and was reversed by singlet oxygen (1O2) quenchers, qualifying LJ001 as a type II photosensitizer. Unsaturated phospholipids were the main target modified by LJ001-generated 1O2. Hydroxylated fatty acid species were detected in model and viral membranes treated with LJ001, but not its inactive molecular analog, LJ025. 1O2-mediated allylic hydroxylation of unsaturated phospholipids leads to a trans-isomerization of the double bond and concurrent formation of a hydroxyl group in the middle of the hydrophobic lipid bilayer. LJ001-induced 1O2-mediated lipid oxidation negatively impacts on the biophysical properties of viral membranes (membrane curvature and fluidity) critical for productive virus-cell membrane fusion. LJ001 did not mediate any apparent damage on biogenic cellular membranes, likely due to multiple endogenous cytoprotection mechanisms against phospholipid hydroperoxides. Based on our understanding of LJ001's mechanism of action, we designed a new class of membrane-intercalating photosensitizers to overcome LJ001's limitations for use as an in vivo antiviral agent. Structure activity relationship (SAR) studies led to a novel class of compounds (oxazolidine-2,4-dithiones) with (1) 100-fold improved in vitro potency (IC50<10 nM), (2) red-shifted absorption spectra (for better tissue penetration), (3) increased quantum yield (efficiency of 1O2 generation), and (4) 10–100-fold improved bioavailability. Candidate compounds in our new series moderately but significantly (p≤0.01) delayed the time to death in a murine lethal challenge model of Rift Valley Fever Virus (RVFV). The viral membrane may be a viable target for broad-spectrum antivirals that target virus-cell fusion. The threat of emerging and re-emerging viruses underscores the need to develop broad-spectrum antivirals. LJ001 is a non-cytotoxic, membrane-targeted, broad-spectrum antiviral previously reported to inhibit the entry of many lipid-enveloped viruses. Here, we delineate the molecular mechanism that underlies LJ001's antiviral activity. LJ001 generates singlet oxygen (1O2) in the membrane bilayer; 1O2-mediated lipid oxidation results in changes to the biophysical properties of the viral membrane that negatively impacts its ability to undergo virus-cell fusion. These changes are not apparent on LJ001-treated cellular membranes due to their repair by cellular lipid biosynthesis. Thus, we generated a new class of membrane-targeted broad-spectrum antivirals with improved photochemical, photophysical, and pharmacokinetic properties leading to encouraging in vivo efficacy against a lethal emerging pathogen. This study provides a mechanistic paradigm for the development of membrane-targeting broad-spectrum antivirals that target the biophysical process underlying virus-cell fusion and that exploit the difference between inert viral membranes and their biogenic cellular counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederic Vigant
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Jihye Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Axel Hollmann
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Lukas B. Tanner
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering (NGS), National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zeynep Akyol Ataman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Tatyana Yun
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Guanghou Shui
- Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hector C. Aguilar
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Dong Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - David Meriwether
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Gleyder Roman-Sosa
- Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Lindsey R. Robinson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Terry L. Juelich
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Hubert Buczkowski
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Sunwen Chou
- Oregon Health & Science University and VA Medical Center, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Miguel A. R. B. Castanho
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Mike C. Wolf
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer K. Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ashley Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Margaret Kielian
- Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Srinivasa Reddy
- Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Markus R. Wenk
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Selke
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Nuno C. Santos
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alexander N. Freiberg
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Michael E. Jung
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Benhur Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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