Control of bacterial growth in water using synthesized inorganic disinfectant

Ionic Silver and Electrical Treatment for Susceptibility and Disinfection of Escherichia coli Biofilm-Contaminated Titanium Surface

In this work, surface disinfection and biofilm susceptibility were investigated by applying ionic silver of 0.4–1.6 µg/mL and cathodic voltage-controlled electrical treatment of 1.8 V and a current of 30 mA to Escherichia coli (E. coli) ATCC 25922 biofilm-contaminated titanium substrates. Herein, it is evident that the treatment exhibited the potential use to enhance the susceptibility of bacterial biofilms for surface disinfection. In vitro studies have demonstrated that the ionic silver treatment of 60 min significantly increased the logarithmic reduction (LR) of bacterial populations on disinfectant-treated substrates and the electrical treatment enhanced the silver susceptibility of E. coli biofilms. The LR values after the ionic silver treatments and the electric-enhanced silver treatments were in the ranges of 1.94–2.25 and 2.10–2.73, respectively. The treatment was also associated with morphological changes in silver-treated E. coli cells and biofilm-contaminated titanium surfaces. Nevertheless, the treatments showed no cytotoxic effects on the L929 mouse skin fibroblast cell line and only a slight decrease in pH was observed during the electrical polarization of titanium substrate.

The chloramine stress induces the production of chloramine decaying proteins by microbes in biomass (biofilm)

In this paper, for the first time, we show in chloraminated systems, the chloramine decaying proteins (CDP) play an important role in bulk water and biomass (biofilm) in resisting disinfectant. Extracellular polymeric substances in biofilm/biomass are known to protect microbes from disinfectants and toxic materials, but the exact mechanism(s) is/are not known. Starting with the seed from a nitrifying chloraminated reactor, two 5 L reactors were fed intermittently with either chloramine or ammonia containing nutrient solution. The degree of nitrification increased with time in both reactors despite an increase in soluble CDP in the chloraminated reactor, while soluble CDP decreased in the ammoniated one. The suspended biomass collected after eight months of operation from chloraminated reactor contained CDP and responded to short-term chloramine stress (1.5 h with initial 1.5 mg-Cl₂·L^-1) by the additional production of soluble CDP. The suspended biomass from ammoniated reactor neither contained CDP nor produced soluble CDP as a stress response. The production, release and accumulation of CDP in biomass (biofilm) could be one of several mechanisms microbes use to defend against disinfectants (stress). The new understanding will pave the way for better disinfection management and better design of experiments.

Disinfection of water by adsorption combined with electrochemical treatment

The disinfection performance of a unique process of adsorption combined with electrochemical treatment is evaluated. A flake graphite intercalation compound adsorbent was used, which is effective for the removal of organic contaminants and is amenable to anodic electrochemical regeneration. Adsorption of Escherichia coli on the graphite flake was followed by electrochemical treatment under a range of experimental conditions in a sequential batch reactor. The adsorption of E. coli cells was found to be a fast process and was capable of removing >99.98% of cells from solution after 5 min with a ca. 6.5-log10 reduction in E. coli concentration after 10 min. With electrochemical treatment the adsorbent could be reused, with no decrease in E. coli adsorption observed over five cycles. In the presence of chloride, >8.5-log10 reduction of E. coli concentration was achieved. Disinfection was found to be less effective in the absence of chloride. However, selection of appropriate operating conditions enabled effective disinfection in a chloride free system, reducing the potential for formation of disinfection by-products. The energy consumption required to achieve >8.5-log10 disinfection was 2-7 kWh m(-3).

Disinfection action of electrostatic versus steric-stabilized silver nanoparticles on E. coli under different water chemistries

The capping layer stabilizing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) affects its aggregation, dissolution, and net disinfection action, especially under conditions of varying water composition, such as, pH, ionic strength and organic matter content. Herein, we correlate the silver ion (Ag(+)) release and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation rates for AgNPs of varying functionalization to their net disinfection coefficient on Escherichia coli, under conditions of differing water chemistries. For electrostatically stabilized citrate-capped AgNPs, the rate of ROS generation, as measured using a fluorescent dye, is found to dominate over that of Ag(+) release, especially for smaller sized AgNP suspensions (~10nm) at low pH (~6.2). For these AgNPs, the ROS disinfection mechanism is confirmed to dominate net disinfection action, as measured by the live/dead assay, especially at low levels of organic matter. Steric stabilization of AgNPs by protein or starch-capped layers enables disinfection through reducing AgNP aggregation and promoting silver dissolution over ROS generation. We suggest the involvement of protons and dissolved oxygen in causing the independent formation of Ag(+) and ROS, regardless of the AgNP capping layer. While protein-capping layers effectively stabilize AgNPs, the generated ROS is likely dissipated by interference with the bulky capping layer, whereas the interference is lower with citrate-capping layers. Steric stabilization of AgNPs enables disinfection within a wide range of water chemistries, whereas effective disinfection can occur under electrostatic stabilization, only at low NaCl (<1 mmol/L) and organic matter (<5 mg/L) levels.

Fast Disinfection of Escherichia coli Bacteria Using Carbon Nanotubes Interaction with Microwave Radiation

Water disinfection has attracted the attention of scientists worldwide due to water scarcity. The most significant challenges are determining how to achieve proper disinfection without producing harmful byproducts obtained usually using conventional chemical disinfectants and developing new point-of-use methods for the removal and inactivation of waterborne pathogens. The removal of contaminants and reuse of the treated water would provide significant reductions in cost, time, liabilities, and labour to the industry and result in improved environmental stewardship. The present study demonstrates a new approach for the removal of Escherichia coli (E. coli) from water using as-produced and modified/functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with 1-octadecanol groups (C18) under the effect of microwave irradiation. Scanning/transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and FTIR spectroscopy were used to characterise the morphological/structural and thermal properties of CNTs. The 1-octadecanol (C18) functional group was attached to the surface of CNTs via Fischer esterification. The produced CNTs were tested for their efficiency in destroying the pathogenic bacteria (E. coli) in water with and without the effect of microwave radiation. A low removal rate (3-5%) of (E. coli) bacteria was obtained when CNTs alone were used, indicating that CNTs did not cause bacterial cellular death. When combined with microwave radiation, the unmodified CNTs were able to remove up to 98% of bacteria from water, while a higher removal of bacteria (up to 100%) was achieved when CNTs-C18 was used under the same conditions.

Recent advances in drinking water disinfection: successes and challenges

Drinking water is the most important single source of human exposure to gastroenteric diseases, mainly as a result of the ingestion of microbial contaminated water. Waterborne microbial agents that pose a health risk to humans include enteropathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Therefore, properly assessing whether these hazardous agents enter drinking water supplies, and if they do, whether they are disinfected adequately, are undoubtedly aspects critical to protecting public health. As new pathogens emerge, monitoring for relevant indicator microorganisms (e.g., process microbial indicators, fecal indicators, and index and model organisms) is crucial to ensuring drinking water safety. Another crucially important step to maintaining public health is implementing Water Safety Plans (WSPs), as is recommended by the current WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Good WSPs include creating health-based targets that aim to reduce microbial risks and adverse health effects to which a population is exposed through drinking water. The use of disinfectants to inactivate microbial pathogens in drinking water has played a central role in reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases and is considered to be among the most successful interventions for preserving and promoting public health. Chlorine-based disinfectants are the most commonly used disinfectants and are cheap and easy to use. Free chlorine is an effective disinfectant for bacteria and viruses; however, it is not always effective against C. parvum and G. lamblia. Another limitation of using chlorination is that it produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which pose potential health risks of their own. Currently, most drinking water regulations aggressively address DBP problems in public water distribution systems. The DBPs of most concern include the trihalomethanes (THMs), the haloacetic acids (HAAs), bromate, and chlorite. However, in the latest edition of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, it is recommended that water disinfection should never be compromised by attempting to control DBPs. The reason for this is that the risks of human illness and death from pathogens in drinking water are much greater than the risks from exposure to disinfectants and disinfection by-products. Nevertheless, if DBP levels exceed regulatory limits, strategies should focus on eliminating organic impurities that foster their formation, without compromising disinfection. As alternatives to chlorine, disinfectants such as chloramines, ozone, chlorine dioxide, and UV disinfection are gaining popularity. Chlorine and each of these disinfectants have individual advantage and disadvantage in terms of cost, efficacy-stability, ease of application, and nature of disinfectant by-products (DBPs). Based on efficiency, ozone is the most efficient disinfectant for inactivating bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. In contrast, chloramines are the least efficient and are not recommended for use as primary disinfectants. Chloramines are favored for secondary water disinfection, because they react more slowly than chlorine and are more persistent in distribution systems. In addition, chloramines produce lower DBP levels than does chlorine, although microbial activity in the distribution system may produce nitrate from monochloramine, when it is used as a residual disinfectant, Achieving the required levels of water quality, particularly microbial inactivation levels, while minimizing DBP formation requires the application of proper risk and disinfection management protocols. In addition, the failure of conventional treatment processes to eliminate critical waterborne pathogens in drinking water demand that improved and/or new disinfection technologies be developed. Recent research has disclosed that nanotechnology may offer solutions in this area, through the use of nanosorbents, nanocatalysts, bioactive nanoparticles, nanostructured catalytic membranes, and nanoparticle-enhanced filtration.

Evaluation of bactericidal efficacy of silver ions on Escherichia coli for drinking water disinfection

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is the development of a suitable process for the disinfection of drinking water by evaluating bactericidal efficacy of silver ions from silver electrodes.

METHODS

A prototype of a silver ioniser with silver electrodes and control unit has been fabricated. Silver ions from silver electrodes in water samples were estimated with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A fresh culture of Escherichia coli (1.75 × 10(3) c.f.u./ml) was exposed to 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 ppb of silver ions in 100 ml of autoclaved tap water for 60 min. The effect of different pH and temperatures on bactericidal efficacy was observed at constant silver ion concentration (5 ppb) and contact time of 30 min.

RESULTS

The maximum bactericidal activity (100%) was observed at 20 ppb of silver ion concentration indicating total disinfection after 20 min while minimum bactericidal activity (25%) was observed after 10 min at 01 ppb of silver ions. Likewise, 100% bactericidal activity was noticed with 2, 5 and 10 ppb of silver ions after 60, 50 and 40 min, respectively. Bactericidal activity at pH 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 was observed at 79.9%, 79.8%, 80.5%, 100% and 100%, respectively, whereas it was 80.4%, 88.3%, 100%, 100% and 100% at 10°C, 20°C, 30°C, 40°C and 50°C, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study revealed that very low concentrations of silver ions at pH 8-9 and temperature >20°C have bactericidal efficacy for total disinfection of drinking water. Silver ionisation is suitable for water disinfection and an appropriate alternative to chlorination which forms carcinogenic disinfection by-products.

Inactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA01 biofilms by hyperthermia using superparamagnetic nanoparticles

The primary goal of this study was to develop a new strategy to inactivate bacterial biofilms using the thermal stress derived from superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) in an alternating current (AC) magnetic field. A large number of studies have examined the inactivation of bacterial biofilms using antimicrobial agents; however, there have been no attempts to inactivate biofilms by hyperthermia using SPIONs. In this study, a SPION solution was added to Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) PA01 biofilm, and heat was generated by placing the nanoparticle-containing biofilm in an AC magnetic field. The heating temperature was dependent on the concentration of the added SPION solution. More than 4 log inactivation of the PA01 biofilm was obtained using a 60 mg mL(-1) SPION solution in 8 min, and this resulted in a dramatic disintegration of the bacterial cell membrane in the biofilm. This inactivation was largely due to the thermal effect. Local heating of a specific area is also possible using this method, and the heating temperature can be easily adjusted by controlling the concentration of the SPION solution. Therefore, hyperthermia using magnetic nanoparticles holds promise as an effective tool for inactivating the bacterial biofilm.

Control of biofilm formation in water using molecularly capped silver nanoparticles

Control of biofouling and its negative effects on process performance of water systems is a serious operational challenge in all of the water sectors. Molecularly capped silver nanoparticles (Ag-MCNPs) were used as a pretreatment strategy for controlling biofilm development in aqueous suspensions using the model organism Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biofilm control was tested in a two-step procedure: planktonic P. aeruginosa was exposed to the Ag-MCNPs and then the adherent biofilm formed by the surviving cells was monitored by applying a model biofilm-formation assay. Under specific conditions, Ag-MCNPs retarded biofilm formation, even when high percentage of planktonic P. aeruginosa cells survived the treatment. For example, Ag-MCNPs (10 microg mL(-1)) retarded biofilm formation (>60%), when 50 percent of the planktonic P. aeruginosa cells survived the treatment. Moreover, stable low value of relative biomass has been formed in the presence of fixed Ag-MCNPs concentrations at various biofilm incubation times. Our results showed that Ag-MCNPs pretreated cells were able to produce EPS although they succeeded to form relatively low adherent biofilm. These pretreated cells appear well preserved and undamaged under TEM HPH/freeze micrographs, yet the intra cellular material seems to be pushed towards the peripheral parts of the cell, possibly indicating a survival strategy to the presence of Ag-MCNPs. The lower value of relative biomass formed in the presence of Ag-MCNPs could be associated with molecular mechanisms related to biofilm formation or continuous release of silver ions in the sample. However, further research is required to examine these factors.

Removal of radioisotopes in solution and bactericidal/bacteriostatic sterilising power in activated carbon and metal silver filters

Activated carbon filters play an important role in water filtration and purification from contaminants of different origin. Their limit consists in bacterial proliferation, which may occur only during prolonged periods of non-use and in their ability to remove radioactive contaminants present in waste water from Industry or Nuclear Medicine departments. In this work we tested a commercially available activated carbon filter for water purification enriched with silver plated parts incubating in static condition at room temperature different micro organisms (Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillum niger), up to 78 days. The microbial growth was in general more inhibited in the presence of metal silver into the activated carbon in respect to filters with the activated carbon alone: >4log inhibition of bacterial proliferation after 78 days of incubation the presence of silver vs. 2log without silver. When the filters were incubated empty of carbon, the sterilizing power of silver was confirmed further. The activated carbon filters proved also their ability in removing from water the principal radioisotopes used for residues liquid medical and research purposes ((131)I, (99m)Tc, (201)Tl, (67)Ga). These results contribute useful data for the use of the silver-enriched carbon filters in water filtration both for daily use at home, and professional use in a Nuclear Medicine laboratory.

Hospital-acquired legionellosis originating from a cooling tower during a period of thermal inversion

A case of hospital-acquired legionellosis occurred in a 75-year-old male patient who underwent surgery due to malignant melanoma. Legionellosis was proven by culture of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Being a chronic smoker the patient used to visit the sickroom balcony that was located about 90 m to the west of a hospital cooling tower. Routine cooling tower water samples drawn during the presumed incubation period revealed 1.0x10(4) CFU/100 ml (L. pneumophila serogroup 1). One of three isolates from the cooling tower water matched the patient's isolate by monoclonal antibody (mab)- and genotyping (sequence-based typing). Horizontal transport of cooling tower aerosols probably was favoured by meteorological conditions with thermal inversion. The case report stresses the importance of routine maintenance and microbiological control of hospital cooling towers.

Silver as a residual disinfectant to prevent biofilm formation in water distribution systems

Biofilms can have deleterious effects on drinking water quality and may harbor pathogens. Experiments were conducted using 100 microg/liter silver to prevent biofilm formation in modified Robbins devices with polyvinyl chloride and stainless steel surfaces. No significant difference was observed on either surface between the silver treatment and the control.

Extracellular polysaccharides produced by cooling water tower biofilm bacteria and their possible degradation

The extracellular polymers (EPS) of biofilm bacteria that can cause heat and mass transfer problems in cooling water towers in the petrochemical industry were investigated. In addition, these microorganisms were screened for their ability to grow and degrade their own EPS and the EPS of other species. Twelve bacteria producing the most EPS were isolated from cooling water towers and characterized biochemically by classic and commercial systems. These were species of Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Aeromonas, Pasteurella, Pantoea, Alcaligenes and Sphingomonas. EPS of these species were obtained by propan-2-ol precipitation and centrifugation from bacterial cultures in media enriched with glucose, sucrose or galactose. EPS yields were of 1.68-4.95 g l(-1). These EPS materials were characterized for total sugar and protein contents. Their total sugar content ranged from 24 to 56% (g sugar g(-1) EPS), and their total protein content ranged from 10 to 28% (g protein g(-1) EPS). The monosaccharide compositions of EPS were determined by HPLC. Generally, these compositions were enriched in galactose and glucose, with lesser amounts of mannose, rhamnose, fructose and arabinose. All bacteria were investigated in terms of EPS degradation. Eight of the bacteria were able to utilize EPS from Burkholderia cepacia, seven of the bacteria were able to utilize EPS from Pseudomonas sp. and Sphingomonas paucimobilis. The greatest viscosity reduction of B. cepacia was obtained with Pseudomonas sp. The results show that the bacteria in this study are able to degrade EPS from biofilms in cooling towers.

Inactivation of Legionella pneumophila and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: evaluation of the bactericidal ability of silver cations

In this study, silver cations dissolved as silver nitrate at various concentrations were exposed to Legionella pneumophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli to quantitatively estimate the bactericidal ability of silver. Observed data were analyzed using a newly developed model (Cs x T) that introduced a specific amount of chemisorbed silver onto a bacterial cell (Cs), which represented the chemisorption properties of silver on the bacterial cell body. Silver cations were rapidly chemisorbed onto bacterial cells after injection into samples, and Cs values (initial concentration of silver was 0.1 mg Ag/l) were calculated as 1.810 x 10(-6) (L. pneumophila), 1.102 x 10(-6) (P. aeruginosa), and 1.638 x 10(-6) microg Ag/cell(i) (E. coli) after incubation for 8 h. During that time, the three tested bacteria were completely inactivated under the detection limit (>7.2 log reduction). Based on the calculated Cs values, bacterial tolerance against silver was estimated by using the equation (Cs x T) multiplying the Cs values with exposure time (T). The Cs x T values well represented the bactericidal abilities of silver against the tested bacteria. The demanded Cs x T values to accomplish a 1 log inactivation (90% reduction) of L. pneumophila, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli (the initial numbers of bacteria were 1.5 x 10(7) CFU/ml, approximately) were estimated as 2.44 x 10(-6), 0.63 x 10(-6), and 0.46 x 10(-6) microgh/cell(i) of silver. The values were significantly reduced to 1.54 x 10(-6), 0.31 x 10(-6), and 0.25 x 10(-6) microgh/cell(i), respectively, with simultaneous injection of silver and copper. This study shows the successful quantitative estimation of the bactericidal ability of silver by applying the newly developed model (Cs x T). Among the tested bacteria, L. pneumophila showed the strongest tolerance to exposure of the same concentration of silver.

Inactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aeromonas hydrophila by silver in tap water

This study was conducted to assess the efficacy of silver as a secondary disinfectant to replace or reduce the level of chlorine utilized in water distribution systems. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Aeromonas hydrophila are opportunistic pathogens present in drinking water and have been associated with waterborne disease. After 8 hours of exposure to 100 microg/L of silver, there was a >6-log10 reduction in P. aeruginosa in tap water at room temperature at pH7 and a 5.55-log10 reduction in the presence of 3 mg/L humic acid. Similar reductions were observed at pH9. At 4 degrees C, reductions greater than 4-log10 were observed after 24 hours. For A. hydrophila, a >6-log10 reduction occurred at both pH7 and pH9 within nine hours. The World Health Organization has determined that this amount of silver could be used for water disinfection without health risks. Furthermore, silver shows promise as a secondary disinfectant, even in the presence of organic matter in concentrations that would reduce the effectiveness of free chlorine.

Silver as a disinfectant

Silver has been used as an antimicrobial for thousands of years. Over the past several decades, it has been introduced into numerous new venues such as in the treatment of water, in dietary supplements, in medical applications, and to produce antimicrobial coatings and products. Silver is often used as an alternative disinfectant in applications in which the use of traditional disinfectants such as chlorine may result in the formation of toxic by-products or cause corrosion of surfaces. Silver has also been demonstrated to produce a synergistic effect in combination with several other disinfectants. Many mechanisms of the antibacterial effect of silver have been described, but its antiviral and antiprotozoal mechanisms are not well understood. Both microbial tolerance and resistance to silver have been reported; however, the effect of silver has been observed against a wide variety of microorganisms over a period of years. Further research is needed to determine the antimicrobial efficacy of silver in these new applications and the effects of its long-term usage.